masm 


ENC 


A  S  the  PUBI 
™     that  the; 

REVISED    AND 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

GIFT  OF 


ARS 


n  announcing 

fHOROUGHLY 
NDS. 


Mrs.  Henry  J.  Miller 
Practica 

Clearnes 

Fullness 

Complete   Elaboration   in  all  the  Several   Parts. 

A   Logical   Accuracy  and   Perfectness  of    Definition. 

Forms  and  Formulas  of  Analysis,  Syntactical  Reso- 
lution and  Correction,  as  Exact  and  Exhaustive 
as  the  Demonstrations  of  Geometry. 

Definite   Presentation   of  the  Subject- Matter. 


CORRESPONDENCE    SOLICITED. 


WILLIAM    WOOD    &    COMPANY,    PUBLISHERS, 

43,  45  and  47   East  Tenth  Street,  New  York. 


£ROW2TS   SERIES    OF  GRAMMARS. 
THE 

INSTITUTES 

;- 

i 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

\ 

BY 

GOOLD    BROWN, 

AUTHOR  OF  THE  GRAMMAR  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMARS. 
WITH  EXERCISES   IN   ANALYSIS,  PARSING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION. 

BY  HENKY  KIDDLE,  A.M., 

LATE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

NEWLY  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED. 


WILLIAM    WOOD    &    COMPANY, 
NEW  YORK. 


OOPYRIOHT,  1856,  1882,  1893. 

WILT  JAM  WOOD  &  COMPANY, 

NEW  YORK. 


BROWN'S   GRAMMAR  SERIES. 


BROWN'S   LANGUAGE   LESSONS. 
THE   FIRST  LINES   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 
THE   INSTITUTES   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 
THE  GRAMMAR  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMARS. 

EPOC.* 

PSYCH, 
«ARY 

GIFT 


8V77 


EDUC.- 

AUTHOE'S  PEEFAOE.   [JSBYR%Y 


THE  school-book  now  pretty  well-known  as  "  Brown's  Institutes 
of  English  Grammar, "  was  my  first  attempt  at  authorship  in  the 
character  of  a  grammarian  ;  and,  satisfactory  as  it  has  been  to  the 
many  thousands  who  have  used  it,  it  has,  nevertheless,  like  all 
other  not  incorrigible  attempts  in  this  line,  been  found  susceptible 
of  sundry  important  emendations.  So  that  I  must  believe  with 
Murray,  that,  ^  Works  of  this  nature  admit  of  repeated  improve- 
ments ;  and  are,  perhaps,  never  complete."  It  cannot,  however, 
be  said  in  my  favor,  as  it  has  been  in  commendation  of  this  author, 
that,  "  He  went  on  examining  and  correcting  his  grammar  through 
all  its  forty  editions^  till  he  brought  it  to  the  utmost  degree  of  per- 
fection ; "  but  something  has  been  done  in  this  way,  three  or 
four  of  the  early  editions  of  the  Institutes  having  been  severally 
retouched  and  improved  by  the  author's  hand  ;  and  now,  an  un- 
diminished  demand  for  the  work  having  continued  to  spread  its 
reputation,  I  have  at  length  the  satisfaction  to  have  endeavored 
yet  once  again  to  render  it  still  more  worthy  of  the  public  favor. 

The  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  author  first  published  this 
work,  has  been  mainly  spent  in  labors  and  studies  tending  very 
directly  to  enlarge  and  mature  his  knowledge  of  English  Gram- 
mar ;  and,  especially,  to  better  his  acquaintance  with  the  great 
variety  of  books  and  essays  which  have  been  written  upon  it.  The 
principal  result  of  these  labors  and  studies  has  been  given  to  the 
world  in  his  large  work  entitled  "  The  Grammar  of  English  Gram- 
mars." To  conform  the  future  editions  of  these  Institutes  more 
nearly  to  the  text  of  this  large  Grammar,  to  supply  some  deficien- 
cies which  have  been  thought  to  lessen  the  comparative  value  of 
the  former  work,  to  divide  the  book  more  systematically  into 
chapters  and  subdivisions,  and  to  correct  a  few  typographical  er- 
rors which  had  crept  in,  were  the  objects  contemplated  in  the  re- 
vision which  has  now  been  effected. 

In  making  these  improvements,  I  have  not  forgotten  that  alter- 

161 


iv  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

ations  in  a  popular  class-book  are,  on  some  accounts,  exceedingly 
undesirable.  The  writer  who  ventures  at  all  upon  them,  is  ever 
liable  to  subject  his  patrons  and  best  friends  to  more  or  less  in- 
convenience ;  and  for  this  he  should  be  very  sure  of  having  pre- 
sented, in  every  instance,  an  ample  compensation.  It  is  believed 
that  the  changes  which  the  present  revision  exhibits,  though  they 
are  neither  few  nor  unimportant,  need  not  prevent,  in  schools,  a 
concurrent  use  of  old  editions  with  the  new,  till  the  former  may 
be  sufficiently  worn  out.  What  has  been  a'dded  or  changed,  will 
therefore  lack  no  justification  ;  and  the  author  will  rest,  with  suf- 
ficient assurance,  in  the  hope  that  the  intelligent  patronage  which 
has  hitherto  been  giving  more  and  more  publicity  to  his  earliest 
teachings,  will  find  decidedly,  and  without  mistake,  in  this  im- 
proved form  of  the  work,  the  best  common  school  Grammar  now 
extant. 

GOOLD  BROWN. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PREFACE, iii-iv 

History  of  Language, 9 

Use  of  Language, .       21 

^     PART  I.-ORTHOGRAPHY. 
I.  Letters, 23 

Names  of  the  Letters,  24  ;  Classes  of  the  Letters,  25 ;  Classes 
of  the  Consonants,  25 ;  Powers  of  the  Letters,  26 ;  Forms 
of  the  Letters,  28 ;  Rules  for  thft  Use  of  Capitals,  28. 

II.  Syllables,        - 29 

Diphthongs  and  Triphthongs,  30 ;  Syllabication,  30. 

III.  Words, 31 

Species  and  Figure  of  Words,  31 ;  Rules  for  the  Figure  of 
Words,  31. 

IV.  Spelling,        .  32 

Rules  for  Spelling,  32. 

Questions  for  Review, 34 

Exercises  for  Writing, 36 

PART  II.-ETYMOLOCY. 

I.  The  Sentence,       -        .       .        . '      .        .        .        .43 

Exercises,  44. 

II.  The  Parts  of  Speech, 45 

Definitions  of  Terms,  46 ;  Exercises  in  Parsing  (Praxis  I.),  47. 

III.  Articles, 48 

Classes,  48;  Exercises  for  Writing,  49. 

IV.  Nouns, 49 

Classes,  50 ;  Modifications— Persons,  51 ;  Numbers,  52 ;  Gen- 
ders, 55 ;  Cases,  56 ;  Declension  of  Nouns,  57. 


CONTENTS. 


V.  Analysis,  Parsing,  and  Construction,        •         .      58 

Exercises  in  Analysis  and  Parsing  (Praxis  IL),  60 ;  Construc- 
tion and  Composition,  61. 

VI,  Adjectives, 63 

Classes,  63  ;  Modifications — Comparison,  65. 

VII.  Pronouns 68 

Classes,  68 ;  Modifications,  69  ;  Declension  of  Pronouns,  70 ; 
Compound  Personals,  71 ;  Relatives  and  Interrogates,  71 ; 
Compound  Relatives,  72. 

VIII.  Analysis,  Parsing,  and  Construction, 

Exercises  in  Analysis  and  Parsing  (Praxis  III.),  74;  Exer- 
cises in  Construction,  75 ;  Composition,  76. 

IX,  Verbs, 77 

Classes,  77;  Modifications— Moods,  79;  Tenses,  80;  Inflec- 
tions— Persons  and  Numbers,  82;  Conjugation  of  Verbs, 
84 ;  Irregular  Verbs,  101 ;  Defective  Verbs,  107. 

X.  Participles,    .........    109 

Classes,  109. 

XI.  Adverbs, U2 

Classes,  112 ;  Conjunctive  Adverbs,  114 ;  Modifications,  115. 

XII.  Conjunctions 116 

Classes,  116. 

XIII.  Prepositions 116 

XIV.  Interjections, .118 

XV.  Analysis,  Parsing,  and  Construction, 

Phrases,  119 ;  Exercises  in  Analysis  and  Parsing  (Praxis  IV. ), 
122;  Exercises  in  Construction,  123. 

Questions  for  Review, 

PART   III.    SYNTAX. 

Introductory  Definitions, 130 

Rules  of  Syntax, 131 

I.  Relation,    .  1U 

Rule  I.,  Articles,  134;  Rule  II,  Adjectives,  140;  Rule  III., 
Adverbs,  148  ;  Rule  IV.,  Participles,  152  ;  Rule  V.,  Prepo- 
sitions, 157. 


CONTENTS.  vii 


II.  Agreement, 161 

Rule  VI.,  Nominatives,  161;  Rule  VII.,  Apposition,  162; 
Rule  VIII.,  Verb  and  Subject,  165;  Rule  IX.,  Collective 
Nominative,  170  ;  Rule  X.,  Two  or  more  Nominatives,  171 ; 
Rule  XL,  Singular  Nominatives,  174;  Rule  XII.,  Verbs 
Connected,  177;  Rule  XIII.,  Subject  and  Attribute,  179; 
Rule  XIV.,  Pronoun  and  Antecedent,  18:3  ;  Rule  XV.,  Col- 
lective Antecedent,  192  ;  Rule  XVI.,  Connected  Antece- 
dents, 193;  Rule  XVIL,  Connected  Antecedents,  195. 

III.  Government,    : 196 

Rule  XVIIL,  Possessives,  196;  Rule  XIX.,  Object  of  the 
Verb,  200 ;  Rule  XX.,  Object  of  the  Preposition,  202 ;  Rule 
XXI.,  Infinitives,  204. 

IV.  Miscellaneous  Rules,  •        •        •    207 

Rule  XXII.,  Infinitives,  207;  Rule  XXIII.,  Subjunctive 
Mood,  208;  Rule  XXIV,  Independent  Case,  210;  Rule 
XXV.,  Conjunctions,  212  ;  Rule  XXVI.,  Interjections,  215. 

Promiscuous  Examples  of  False  Syntax,  216. 


V.  Arrangement,   .... 

Rules  and  Illustrations,  220 ;  General  Rule,  221. 


220 


VL  Exercises  in  Analysis,  Parsing,  and  Construc- 
tion (Praxis  V),       .  223 

Phrases,  224 ;  Clauses,  229 ;  Compound  Sentences,  236 ;  Mis- 
cellaneous Sentences,  239 ;  Sentences  of  Peculiar  or  Irregu- 
lar Construction,  247. 

Questions  for  Review, 252 


PART  IV.-PROSODY. 

I.  Punctuation, .255 

L  The  Comma,  256  ;  II.  The  Semicolon,  261 ;  III.  The  Colon, 
262;  IV.  The  Period,  262-,  V.  The  Dash,  263;  VI.  The 
Eroteme,  264;  VII.  The  Ecphoneme,  265;  VIII.  The 
Curves,  265 ;  IX.  Other  Marks,  266. 

Exercises  in  Punctuation, 268 

II.  Utterance, 278 

Pronunciation,  278;  Elocution,  279. 

III.  Figures, 280 

Figures  of  Orthography,  280  ;    Figures  of  Etymology,  281  ; 
Figures  of  Syntax,  282 ;  Figures  of  Rhetoric,  284. 

Exercises  in  Figures  (Praxis  VI. ),        .  .        .287 


CONTENTS. 

*AGt 

IV.  Versification, 294 

Quantity,  294;   Rhyme,  295;    Poetic  Feet,  295;   Scanning, 

•HPuL 

Exercises  in  Scanning, 301 

Questions  for  Review 305 

COMPOSITION. 

Preliminary  Exercises, 308 

Original  Composition,      .........     309 

Letter-Writing, 310 

Heading,  310 ;  Address,  311 ;  Body,  313  ;  Closing,  314 ;  Superscrip- 
tion, 314. 


QUALITIES  OF  STYLE. 

I.  Purity, .  317 

IL  Propriety 318 

III.  Precision, 318 

IV.  Perspicuity, 319 

V.  Unity, 319 

VL  Strength, .320 


POETIC  DICTION. 

Poetical  Peculiarities, 321 

Formation  of  Derivative  Words, 325 


HISTOET  OF  LANGUAGE. 


WE  are  told  by  those  who  have  made  the  subject  their  study, 
that  there  are  now  more  than  a  thousand  languages  spoken  in 
the  world.  Some  of  these,  such  as  the  English,  French,  and 
German,  are  Highly  developed  tongues,  capable  of  expressing, 
fully  and  clearly,  the  most  complex  and  refined  ideas  which 
cultivated  minds  can  entertain  ;  while  others  are  the  simple 
and  meagre  tongues  which  suffice  for  the  few  and  simple 
thoughts  of  rude  and  ignorant  Savages. 

Every  one  of  these  languages,  from  the  highest  to  the  low- 
est, has  its  grammar.  Not,  of  course,  necessarily  a  grammar 
that  is  written  in  books  and  taught  in  schools,  but  some  rules 
for  forming  and  arranging  its  words  so  that  the  thoughts  of 
the  speaker,  and  the  relations  between  the  things  spoken  of, 
may  be  accurately  conveyed  to  the  hearer.  Without  such 
rules  no  intelligible  speech  would  be  possible ;  and  the  sys- 
tem of  rules  observed  in  every  language  by  careful  speakers 
or  writers  is  the  grammar  of  that  language.  A  book  which 
teaches  the  rules  for  the  correct  use  of  English,  teaches  Eng- 
lish grammar,  and  such  a  book  is  usually  called  an  English 
Grammar. 

All  languages  are,  of  course,  originally  contrivances  for 
conveying  thoughts  from  one  person  to  another  by  means  of 
sounds.  But  at  an  early  stage  in  the  history  of  civilization  it 
was  found  desirable  to  express  thoughts  to  the  eye,  by  visible 
symbols,  and  so  written  language  arose.  Of  this  there  are 
three  stages.  The  first  and  most  natural  method  was  to  draw 
of  the  object  or  objects,  or  some  easily  understood 


10  HISTORY  OF  LANGUAGE. 

symbol  This  mode  of  writing  is  practised  now  by  some 
tribes  of  American  Indians,  and  in  the  developed  form  that 
we  call  hieroglyphics,  was  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
The  second  mode  was  by  the  use  of  conventional  figures  which 
are  no  representation  of  the  thing,  but  are  understood  to  stand 
for  it.  A  system  of  this  kind  in  ordinary  use  is  our  Arabic 
notation  of  numerals.  The  figure  4,  for  instance,  is  equally 
intelligible  to  an  Englishman,  a  Frenchman,  and  a  German, 
though  the  first  calls  it  "four,"  the  second  "quatre,"  and  the 
third  "vier."  These  two  modes,  then,  represent  things  and 
conceptions,  and  not  names  and  sounds. 

Most  nations,  however,  have  adopted  a  phonetic  system  of 
writing  ;  that  is,  a  system  of  indicating,  by  means  of  arbitrary 
characters,  the  sounds  of  speech ;  in  other  words,  the  names 
of  things  instead  of  the  things  themselves.  This  has  the  dis- 
advantage that  it  can  be  read  only  by  one  who  understands 
the  language  ;  but  this  is  far  more  than  counterbalanced  by 
its  simplicity.  For  as  the  simple  sounds  of  speech  are  few,  a 
very  small  set  of  symbols  will  be  sufficient  to  represent  them, 
and  these  can  be  combined  as  the  sounds  are  combined. 
Such  a  set  of  symbols  for  simple  sounds  is  called  an  alphabet 
Twenty-six  characters  are  all  that  the  beginner  in  English  has 
to  learn  ;  while  the  Chinese  (who  do  not  use  a  phonetic  system) 
have  to  learn  some  thousands  of  characters  before  they  can 
read  a  simple  book. 

It  is  exceedingly  probable,  though  it  cannot  be  positively 
asserted,  that  alphabetic  writing  descended  from  the  hiero- 
glyphic, by  making  the  symbols,  for  convenience,  more  con- 
ventional and  less  like  pictures.  An  instance  of  this  occurs 
in  our  own  language.  In  early  times  there  was  a  special  char- 
acter, (?,  representing  the  English  th.  This  character  was 
called  "  thorn  ; "  and  it  can  be  seen  to  be  a  rude  representation 
of  a  thorn  on  its  stem.  In  the  course  of  time  this  character 
came  to  be  written  ]>,  in  which  the  likeness  to  a  thorn  can 
hardly  be  traced. 

In  certain  way»  we  still  use  the  older  modes  of  repreeen- 


HISTORY   OF  LANGUAGE.  11 

tation  ;  for  instance,  such  a  statement  in  an  almanac  as  "  (£  seti 
at  9h.  34m.,"  illustrates  the  hieroglyphic,  the  conventional, 
and  the  phonetic  systems. 

The  four  divisions  of  grammar — Orthography,  Etymology, 
Syntax,  and  Prosody — will  be  explained  further  on.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  there  is  a  study  which  deals  with  the  sounds  of 
speech  and  the  laws  that  govern  them,  which  is  called  Phonet- 
ics, and  one  which  deals  with  the  resemblances  and  differences 
of  various  languages,  which  is  called  Comparative  Grammar. 
These  all  are  parts  of  one  comprehensive  science  of  language, 
called  Philology,  which  deals  with  all  languages,  ancient  and 
modern. 

If  a  persoa-  who  could  speak  and  read  the  principal  Euro- 
pean languages,  but  knew  nothing  of  the  researches  of  philol- 
ogists, were  to  endeavor  from  the  languages  themselves  to 
find  out  something  about  their  origin  and  history,  he  would 
probably  proceed  somewhat  in  this  way  : 

He  would  notice,  first,  that  the  languages  spoken  in  the 
South  of  Europe,  for  instance,  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  and 
Portuguese,  have  a  great  similarity  to  each  other.  Taking 
the  word  "  good,"  he  would  find  it  in  those  languages,  re- 
spectively, bon,  buono,  bueno,  and  bom.  Now,  remembering 
that  many  centuries  ago  the  Latin  language  was  universally 
spoken  in  those  countries,  he  would  naturally  fix  upon  the 
Latin  bonus  as  the  origin  of  all  these  forms  ;  and  when,  upon 
further  examination,  he  found  that  the  same  resemblance  held 
good  for  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  words  in  these  languages, 
his  conclusion  would  be  that  these  languages  are  derived  from 
the  Latin  ;  that  is,  that  they  are  forms  of  Latin  speech  which 
have  undergone  changes  in  the  course  of  time. 

Now  when  he  came  to  the  languages  of  Northern  Europe, 
and  taking  English,  German,  and  Dutch  as  examples,  found 
that  the  words  corresponding  to  the  Latin  bonus  were,  re- 
spectively, good,  gut,  and  goed,  which  are  not  the  least  like  the 
Latin,  though  they  are  like  each  other,  he  would  probably 
form  two  conclusions:  first,  that  these  languages  are  not 


12  mSTOBY  OF  LANGUAGE. 

derived  from  the  Latin,  and,  second,  that  they  are  derived 
from  some  entirely  different  common  source. 

But  if  he  carried  his  investigations  further  in  English,  he 
would  meet  with  facts  that  seem  to  make  these  last  conclu- 
sions doubtful.  He  would  meet  with  many  thousands  of 
words,  such  as  exclude,  admirable  (Latin  excludere,  admira- 
bilis),  which  come  quite  as  near  to  the  Latin  as  do  the  words 
of  the  Southern  languages.  But  on  comparison  he  would 
note  an  important  difference.  He  would  observe  that  while 
in  the  Southern  .languages  the  simplest  and  most  familiar 
words,  such  as  those  which  stand  for  "good,"  "bad,"  "man," 
"woman,"  are  plainly  of  Latin  origin,  in  the  Northern  lan- 
guages this  is  not  the  case.  And  if  he  brought  together  the 
English  words  which  are  so  like  the  Latin,  he  would  observe 
that  not  only  are  they  not  the  simple  homely  speech  of  daily 
life,  but  they  are,  for  the  most  part,  the  words  of  books  or  of 
educated  people.  He  would  then  probably  modify  his  former 
conclusions  in  this  way,  that  there  are  in  English  two  great 
classes  of  words,  one  used  by  educated  and  uneducated  alike, 
and  therefore  probably  the  original  tongue  of  the  people,  and 
one  class  introduced  from  the  Latin  at  a  time  when  there 
were  enough  scholars  and  learned  writers  of  books  to  make  a 
permanent  impression  on  the  language. 

Further  investigation  would  lead  to  the  discovery  that  there 
is  another  and  considerable  class  of  words  in  familiar  use, 
such  as  flower,  beauty,  loyal,  which  are  not  so  obviously  Latin 
as  exclude,  admirable,  and  yet  seem  to  be  of  Latin  derivation. 
This  would  point  to  a  threefold  division  :  First,  the  primitive 
words,  not  of  Latin  origin,  which  seem  (roughly  speaking)  all 
alike,  and  one  as  old  as  the  other ;  second,  a  class  of  words 
which  differ  from  the  Latin  only  in  the  termination ;  third, 
words  apparently  of  Latin  origin,  like  flower  (Lat.  florem), 
beauty  (Lat.  bellitatem),  loyal  (Lat.  legalis),  which  have  under- 
gone change  in  the  body  of  the  word.  This  fact  would  point 
to  one  of  two  conclusions,  viz. :  that  this  last  group  of  words 
had  either  been  introduced  at  an  earlier  period,  so  that  they 


HISTORY  OF  LANGUAGE.  13 

had  had  more  time  in  which  to  undergo  change  ;  or  else  that 
they  had  not  been  taken  directly  from  the  Latin,  but  from 
some  other  language  of  Latin  origin. 

We  will  suppose  that  our  investigator  now,  having  seen 
from  flower  and  beauty  how  much  words  may  change,  deter- 
mines to  compare  a  large  number  of  the  non-Latin,  primitive 
English  words  with  their  equivalents  in  other  languages,  in- 
cluding the  Latin  and  Greek,  to  see  if  there  is  not  a  resem- 
blance, less  obvious,  but  sufficient  to  indicate  some  ancient 
kinship.  He  will  then  find  a  large  number  of  words  like 
"father,"  "mother,"  "wine,"  which  in  German  are  Vater, 
Mutter,  Wein;  in  French  pere,  mere,  vin ;  in  Latin,  pater, 
mater,  vinum*r  in  Greek  pater,  meter,  vinos;  resemblances 
which  are  far  too  numerous  to  be  the  result  of  accident.  If 
now  he  broadened  his  investigations  so  as  to  include  the 
Sanskrit  (or  ancient  language  of  India),  the  Persian,  and  the 
Keltic  (or  ancient  languages  of  Ireland,  Wales,  and  Britanny), 
and  still  found  these  resemblances  among  them  all ;  and  fur- 
ther observed  that  the  differences  seemed  not  to  be  capricious, 
but  in  accordance  with  certain  laws,  his  conclusion  would 
probably  be  that  all  these  languages  were  related,  and  pos- 
sibly all  sprang,  at  some  extremely  ancient  time,  or  times, 
from  some  primitive  mother- speech. 

The  conclusions  which  we  have  supposed  our  investigator 
to  have  arrived  at  by  comparison  of  words  and  by  ordinary 
processes  of  induction,  have  been  reached  by  philologists  after 
extensive  and  laborious  study,  and  confirmed  and  amplified  by 
researches  and  reasoning  which  cannot  be  explained  here. 

Suffice  it  here  to  say  that  nearly  all  the  languages  of 
Europe  (and  English,  as  coming  from  Europe,  is  a  European 
language),  as  well  as  the  Persian  and  Sanskrit,  languages  of 
Asia,  and  the  ancient  Greek  and  Latin,  have  been  shown  to 
belong  to  one  great  family,  to  which  has  been  given  the  name 
Indo-European,  or  Aryan.  That  they  are  all  descended  from 
one  primitive  mother-speech  seems  probable,  though  we  do 
not  know  what  that  speech  was. 


14  HISTORY  OF  LANGUAGE. 

Of  this  great  family  there  are  a  number  of  groups :  the 
ROMANCE,  a  term  denoting  the  languages  derived  originally 
from  the  Latin,  such  as  French  and  Italian  ;  the  KELTIC, 
or  ancient  languages  of  Wales  and  Britanny ;  the  SCLAVONIC, 
or  languages  of  Eussia  and  Poland  ;  and  the  TEUTONIC,  or 
languages  of  Germany,  Holland,  and  England. 

The  Teutonic,  or  group  to  which  English  belongs,  is  again 
subdivided  into  the  Eastern  and  Western  sub-groups,  as 
shown  by  the  diagram — 


TEUTONIC 
LANGUAGES. 

'  Eastern 
Group. 

Western 
Group. 

(  Gothic, 
(  Scandinavian. 

C  English, 
j  Frisian, 
1  Dutch, 
(^  German. 

f  Swedish, 
J  Danish, 
j  Norwegian, 
[  Icelandic. 

We  say,  then,  that  the  English  is  a  branch  of  the  Teutonic 
group  of  the  Indo-European,  or  Aryan,  family  of  languages. 

The  English,  however,  is  not  the  language  that  has  been 
spoken  in  England  from  the  earliest  times.  Before  the  island 
was  called  England,  it  was  inhabited  by  a  people,  or  peoples, 
whose  descendants  subsist  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and 
the  Welsh,  who  spoke  a  Keltic  tongue,  and  were  akin  to  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Gaul.  We  know  what  their  language 
was,  because  dialects  of  it  are  still  spoken  (though  they  are 
apparently  dying  out),  and  many  books,  dictionaries,  and 
grammars  still  preserve  the  later  forms  of  these  dialects. 

In  the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era  a  series  of  inva- 
sions of  Britain  were  made  by  Angles,  Saxons,  Jutes,  and 
Frisians,  peoples  living  on  the  northwestern  coasts  of  Ger- 
many, who  in  many  battles  conquered  the  Keltic  inhabitants, 
slaying  many,  and  driving  the  remnant  to  the  extreme  west 
coast,  or  to  the  mountainous  country  of  Scotland,  where,  as 
was  said,  in  the  Highlands,  Wales,  and  Cornwall,  their  de- 
scendants survive  to  this  day.  Thus  the  ancient  Keltic 
tongue  was  displaced  by  that  of  the  invaders,  which  was  one 
speech,  although  the  speech  of  the  Saxons,  who  settled  more 


HISTOKY  OP  LANGUAGE.  15 

to  the  south,  differed  somewhat  from  that  of  the  Angles,  who 
settled  in  the  middle  and  north  of  the  island.  The  Angles 
were  the  most  numerous  and  most  powerful  of  the  invading 
peoples,  and  occupied  the  most  extensive  territory ;  and  so 
the  island  came  to  be  called  England,  or  land  of  the  Angles^ 
and  the  speech  English,  or  speech  of  the  Angles. 

This  most  ancient  form  of  the  language  is  now  often  called 
Anglo-Saxon,  from  the  -  two  chief  peoples  who  introduced  it 
into  Britain.  The  name  is  perhaps  unfortunate,  as  the  peo- 
ple who  used  it  never  called  it  Anglo-Saxon,  but  always  Eng- 
lish ;  and  perhaps  the  term  Old-English,  or  First  English,  is 
better.  However,  Anglo-Saxon  is  a  convenient  term  to  denote 
the  earliest  forjn  of  the  language  ;  but  the  student  should  al- 
ways remember  that  it  is  not  a  foreign  language  from  which 
ours  is  derived,  but  simply  English  in  its  earliest  form. 

This  Old-English,  or  First  English,  however,  has  so  very 
different  a  look  from  the  English  of  the  present  day,  that  one 
who  saw  it  for  the  first  time  might  easily  suppose  it  alto- 
gether foreign.  For  this  there  are  three  reasons.  First,  a 
great  many  old  words  have  been  lost  in  the  course  of  time 
and  replaced  by  others ;  for  instance,  uriga,  a  warrior ;  leoth,  a 
song.  Secondly,  a  great  many  words  that  have  remained  were 
then  spelled  differently;  thus,  "father,"  "mother,"  "child," 
were  feeder,  modor,  did.  Thirdly,  it  was  an  inflected  lan- 
guage ;  that  is,  the  cases  of  nouns,  pronouns,  and  adjectives, 
and  the  persons,  moods,  tenses,  and  participles  of  verbs  were 
uniformly  distinguished  by  changes  of  form.  Thus  "  the 
good  man  "  was  se  goda  mann;  but  "to  the  good  man,"  was 
tham  gddan  menu. 

This  earliest  form  of  English,  though  it  adopted  a  few  Kel- 
tic words  from  the  conquered  peoples,  and  a  few  Latin  words 
left  behind  by  the  Komans,  or  brought  in  by  the  Church 
after  the  Angles  and  Saxons  became  Christians,  was  really  a 
pure  language ;  that  is,  it  contained  practically  no  words  but 
those  of  its  own  branch,  and  so  continued  until  the  Norman 
Conquest,  in  the  year  1066. 


16  HISTOEY   OF  LANGUAGE. 

In  this  earliest  English  many  books  were  written,  some  of 
which  are  still  preserved.  The  earliest  poetry  seems  to  have 
been  written  in  the  north  ;  but  the  invasions  of  the  Danes  in 
the  ninth  century,  that  laid  all  that  country  waste,  nearly 
destroyed  this  northern  literature.  Afterwards,  in  the  reign 
of  King  Alfred,  when  England  was  for  a  while  at  peace,  that 
great  king  endeavored  to  revive  literature,  encouraging 
schools  and  learned  men,  and  translating  several  important 
Latin  books  himself.  Under  the  encouragement  thus  given 
to  literature  other  books  were  written,  and  a  considerable 
part  of  the  old  Anglian  poetry  was  rewritten  in  the  Southern 
or  Saxon  dialect,  in  which  form  we  now  have  it.  The  impulse 
thus  given  did  not  die  out,  and  books  continued  to  be  written 
in  this  First  English  for  two  hundred  years  or  more. 

The  Norman  conquerors  brought  over  their  own  Norman 
language,  which,  however,  was  not  their  original  tongue  of 
Norway,  but  a  Romance  speech  which  they  had  adopted  after 
their  settlement  in  Normandy.  This  Norman  French  was,  of 
course,  the  speech  of  the  court  of  William  and  his  early  suc- 
cessors. Moreover,  he  gave  the  best  lands  to  his  Norman 
followers,  and  put  Norman  ecclesiastics  into  nearly  all  the 
churches,  so  that  the  tongue  of  the  Normans  was  planted 
everywhere  throughout  England.  Thus  for  a  while  there 
was  a  division  of  tongues,  "  the  high  men,"  as  an  old  chron- 
icler tells  us,  speaking  French,  and  "  the  low  men  holding  to 
their  native  English.'*  And  these  low  men  held  so  tenaciously 
to  their  native  speech  that  they  did  not  lose  it  as  the  Nor- 
mans had  lost  theirs ;  but  as  there  was  constant  intercourse 
and  frequent  intermarriage  between  the  two  races,  each 
learned  something  of  the  speech  of  the  other.  England  thus 
became  for  a  while  a  two-languaged  land,  in  which  all  but  the 
very  rudest  people  had  some  knowledge  of  both  French  and 
English.  So  we  find  in  the  thirteenth  century  popular  songs 
and  other  poems  written  in  alternate  lines  of  French  and  Eng- 
lish, or  with  half  of  each  line  French  and  half  English,  show- 
ing that  the  people  they  were  written  for  could  speak  both 


HISTORY  OF  LANGUAGE.  17 

languages  ;  and  a  poet  in  the  next  century  describes  "  ditchers 
and  diggers  "  as  amusing  themselves  by  singing  French  songs. 

There  being  no  standard  for  English  speech  after  it  ceased 
to  be  the  language  of  the  court  and  of  scholars,  and  very 
little  writing  of  books  in  that  tongue  in  the  twelfth  century, 
the  English  literature  of  the  thirteenth  century  (of  which  a 
good  deal  has  come  down  to  us)  was  a  literature  of  dialects, 
each  author  writing  in  the  speech  of  his  own  part  of  the 
country.  Of  these  dialects  the  principal  were  the  Northern, 
or,  more  distinctly,  Anglian  speech  (from  which  the  Lowland 
Scotch,  such  as  that  of  Burns,  is  descended) ;  the  Southern, 
or  more  distinctly  Saxon,  and  the  Midland,  which  later  be- 
came the  classic  English. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  both  French  and  English 
were  spoken  all  over  the  island  for  about  a  hundred  years 
after  the  Conquest  very  few  Norman  words  came  into  the 
English  language.  But  in  other  ways  the  language  was 
powerfully  affected. 

It  began  to  drop  the  inflections,  and  level  down  the  declen- 
sions of  nouns  and  conjugations  of  verbs  to  a  few  simple  forms. 

It  began  to  discard  grammatical  gender.  In  French,  as  in 
all  the  Latin  tongues,  the  word  for  the  sun  is  masculine,  those 
for  the  moon  and  for  a  woman  are  both  feminine.  In  Old 
English,  as  in  all  the  Teutonic  tongues,  the  word  for  the  sun  is 
feminine,  that  for  the  moon  masculine,  and  that  for  a  woman 
neuter.  In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  the  process  of 
discarding  this  grammatical  gender  went  on,  until  in  the  four- 
teenth the  language  had  very  nearly  reached  the  condition  of 
modern  English,  in  which  grammatical  gender  does  not  exist. 

There  was  also  a  change  in  syntax.  The  French  indicates 
the  cases  of  nouns  by  the  use  of  prepositions  ;  the  Old  Eng- 
lish indicated  them  chiefly  by  inflections.  In  this  transition 
period  the  use  of  prepositions  to  indicate  case  was  largely  in- 
creased, and  the  use  of  inflections  greatly  diminished,  though 
not  entirely  abandoned.  To  some  extent  these  twofold  forms 
we  still  used  in  English  :  thus  we  can  say  "  the  king's  crown," 


18  HISTORY  OF  LANGUAGE. 

or  "the  crown  of  the  king;"  "give  the  book  to  him,"  or 
"  give  him  the  book  ; "  the  "  him  "  of  the  last  example  being 
the  regular  Old-English  dative. 

In  an  entry  in  the  "Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,"  under  the 
date  of  1154,  we  have  the  words,  "  in  mani  of  the  castles." 
Had  this  been  written  in  King  Alfred's  time,  it  would  have 
run,  "in  manegum  burgum,"  or,  "in  fela  thara  burga." 
Here,  beside  the  new  Norman  word. "  castles,"  we  note  that 
the  adjective  "  mani "  and  article  "  the "  are  no  longer  de- 
clined, the  same  form  standing  for  all  cases,  singular  or 
plural ;  but  instead  of  the  inflected  genitive,  "  thara  burga," 
we  have  the  prepositional  genitive  "of  the  castles."  Beside 
these  changes  in  form,  great  numbers  of  French  worcls  began 
to  come  into  the  language  late  in  the  thirteenth  and  in  the 
fourteenth  centuries,  so  that  the  language  assumes  a  distinctly 
modern  appearance. 

Any  one  who  has  never  read  any  English  older  than  Shake- 
speare, who  should  attempt  to  read  a  book  by  King  Alfred, 
would  have,  like  a  beginner  in  Greek  or  Latin,  to  keep  a  dic- 
tionary at  his  elbow ;  while  if  he  takes  up  Chaucer  (A.D. 
1340-1400)  he  will  require  only  a  word  to  be  explained  here 
and  there,  and  will  feel  all  the  time  that  he  is  reading  English. 
This  signifies  that  from  Chaucer's  time  to  ours,  or  for  five 
hundred  years,  there  has  been  no  sudden  or  violent  change 
in  the  language  ;  but  it  has  gone  on  by  regular  process  of 
development,  dropping  words  from  time  to  time,  taking  up 
new  ones,  modifying  gradually  some  of  its  phrases,  etc.,  just 
as  it  is  doing  at  the  present  day. 

Now  we  can  explain  historically  the  phenomena  from  which 
our  supposed  investigator  drew  his  conclusions.  The  familiar 
words  of  daily  use,  such  as  mother,  father,  man,  woman,  ride, 
fall,  etc.,  are  chiefly  from  the  primitive  Teutonic  stock ;  the 
words  much  changed  from  the  Latin,  like  flower  and  beauty, 
are  from  the  early  French  introduced  by  the  conquerors,  or 
read  in  French  books  when  few  English  books  were  written ; 
and  the  evidently  Latin  words,  such  as  exclude,  admirable. 


HISTORY  OF  LANGUAGE.  19 

were  taken  directly  from  the  Latin  by  scholars  and  writers  of 
books.  Words  of  this  class  have  been  coming  in,  sometimes 
in  greater  numbers,  and  sometimes  in  less,  from  the  four- 
teenth century  to  our  own  day. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  there  was  a  great  awakening  of 
interest  in  the  study  of  the  Greek  and  Latin ;  and  writers, 
partly  because  they  needed  them,  and  partly  to  show  their 
scholarship,  introduced  multitudes  of  Latin  words  into  Eng- 
lish, of  which  many,  though  not  all,  were  permanently 
adopted  into  the  language.  Another  source  of  new  words 
has  been  the  coinage  of  terms  (usually  from  the  Latin  or 
Greek)  to  represent  the  new  discoveries  and  inventions  of 
science  and  art,  such  as  carbon,  electricity,  telephone.  When 
these  words  belong  to  things  that  enter  into  our  daily  life 
they  become  part  of  our  ordinary  and  familiar  speech.  The 
words  derived  from  the  Greek  and  Latin,  taken  all  together, 
are  more  than  twice  as  many  as  the  pure  English  words,  and 
in  the  present  rapid  development  of  science  and  art,  they  are 
multiplying  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  Fortunately  but  a 
small  part  of  them  enter  into  our  ordinary  speech.  Another 
source  of  additions  to  our  speech  is  found  in  the  changing 
conditions  of  individual  and  social  life,  which  demand  new 
words,  or  new  significations  given  to  old  words,  such  as  a 
strike  of  workmen,  a  lock-out,  to  lynch,  etc.  We  have  also 
the  power,  though  we  use  it  sparingly,  of  coining  new  words 
of  pure  Teutonic  elements,  such  as  gripsack. 

Other  languages  have  contributed,  though  in  a  far  less  de- 
gree, to  our  general  stock  of  words,  or  vocabulary.  Thus  (to 
name  a  few  only),  the  Hebrew  has  given  us  cherub,  cinnamon  ; 
the  Arabic,  alkali,  sofa  ;  the  Persian,  awning,  shawl ;  the  Chi- 
nese, tea;  the  Mexican,  chocolate  ;  some  West  Indian  tongue, 
hammock,  tobacco ;  the  Keltic,  basket,  brag ;  the  German, 
plunder,  swindle ;  the  Dutch,  boom,  yacht,  and  many  other 
.sea-terms. 

Thus  the  language  is  in  perpetual,  but  gradual,  process  of 
change,  while  still  remaining  the  same  language.  The 


20  HISTOKY   OF   LANGUAGE. 

sion  of  education  and  general  reading  of  books  help  greatly 
to  fix  the  language,  both  by  keeping  words  and  phrases  be- 
fore men's  eyes  and  in  their  memories,  and  by  preserving 
models  of  good  writing  and  a  general  standard  to  which  all 
confoijji.  Shakespeare  wrote  three  hundred  years  ago,  and 
we  read  his  works  with  ease  ;  but  he  often  says  things  in  a 
way  in  which  we  should  not  say  them,  and  uses  some  words 
which  we  do  not  use  ;  while  we  have  at  command  HO  any  thou- 
sands of  words  which  Shakespeare  never  heard.  Dryden, 
writing  two  hundred  years  ago,  has  hardly  any  words  or 
phrases  which  we  do  not  use  ;  and  Burke,  writing  a  hundred 
years  ago,  none  at  all. 

The  English  language,  then,  is  a  composite  language  of 
two  principal  elements,  the  Teutonic  and  the  Latin-Romance. 
And,  very  fortunately,  while  admitting  so  many  words  from 
the  latter  source,  it  has  still  preserved  a  large  vocabulary  of 
the  ancient  Teutonic  words  of  the  same  meaning,  so  that  we 
have  a  choice,  as  between  jloiver  and  blossom,  beautiful  and 
fair,  comprehend  and  understand,  integrity  and  uprightness. 
Much  of  the  effectiveness  of  good  writing  lies  in  the  happy 
selection  between  these  two  families  of  words,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  subject  treated,  and  the  effect  the  writer  wishes 
to  produce :  so  that  the  double  vocabulary  is  an  advantage 
which  English  possesses  over  most,  if  not  all,  other  languages. 

Another  great  advantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  English,  with 
its  double  vocabulary,  may  claim  kin  to  both  the  Teutonic 
and  Romance  groups  of  the  Indo-European  family,  and  occu- 
pies, as  it  were,  a  middle  position  between  them.  This  fact, 
combined  with  the  other  facts  that  the  English -speaking  peo- 
ple are  the  great  colonizers,  and  that  English  is  now  spoken 
over  a  greater  part  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  by  a  greater 
number  of  persons  than  any  other  of  the  Aryan  tongues,  and 
that  it  is  spreading  with  remarkable  rapidity,  make  not  alto- 
gether extravagant  the  prediction  of  an  eminent  German- 
scholar,  that  English  would  in  course  of  time  become  the 
great  international  language  of  the  world. 


USE  OF  LANGUAGE. 


We  can  think  of  any  object  which  we  have  seen — a  tree,  for  example 
—so  as  to  see  it  in  the  mind,  like  an  image  or  picture.  This  mental 
image  or  picture  is  called  an  idea  of  the  tree.  The  word  tree  enables 
us  to  express  the  idea,  either  in  speaking  or  writing.  Words  serve  to 
bring  to  the  mind  the  ideas  of  things  previously  observed.  Thus  we 
may  think  of  various  things,  and  recall  to  our  minds  the  ideas  of  them 
by  such  words  as  the  following :  — 

A  horse. 
A  white  horse. 
A  soldier  on  horseback. 
A  lady  riding  a  black  horse. 
A  horse  running  away  with  a  carriage. 

In  a  similar  manner  may  be  brought  to  the  mind  the  ideas  of  things 
heard,  smelt,  tasted,  or  felt.  Thus  : — 

Thunder. — The  thunder  peals. 

A  rose.— The  rose  has  a  sweet  smell. 

An  orange. — The  orange  has  a  sweet  and  acid  taste. 

Velvet. — Velvet  is  soft  and  smooth  to  the  touch. 

When  we  try  to  think  of  these  things,  we  find  that,  although  we  can 
seem  to  hear,  smell,  fkste,  or  feel  them,  we  cannot  do  this  so  clearly  as 
we  can  see  in  the  mind  a  tree,  a  horse,  or  other  object  of  sight.  Hence 
we  say,  the  ideas  of  things  seen  are  clearer  than  those  obtained  through 
any  of  the  other  senses. 

In  thinking  we  combine  ideas  in  various  ways.     Thus :  — 

The  bird  builds  its  nest  in  the  tree. 

Here  we  have  several  ideas  combined  in  a  single  thought : — of  the 
bird,  of  building,  of  a  nest,  of  a  tree  ;  and  these  are  related  to  each  other 
in  various  ways:— the  bird  builds  ;  the  n§St  is  built;  the  nest  is  in  the 
tree.  There  are,  thus,  four  ideas  of  things,  and  several  ideas  of  their 
relations  one  to  another. 


22  USE  OF  LANGUAGE. 

We  cannot  think  without  constantly  using  many  ideas ;  and  we  cannot 
think  clearly  or  communicate  our  thoughts  to  other  persons  without 
using  words  to  represent  those  ideas.  These  words  joined  together  in 
the  right  way  make  language. 

Language  is  the  expression  of  our  thoughts  in  speak- 
ing or  in  writing. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  language :  spoken  language  and 
written  language. 

OBS.  1. — LANGUAGE,  in  the  primitive  sense  of  the  term,  embraced  only 
vocal  expression,  or  human  speech  uttered  by  the  mouth ;  but,  after  let- 
ters were  invented  to  represent  articulate  sounds,  language  became  two- 
fold, spoken  and  written;  so  that  the  term  lunguage  now  signifies  any 
series  of  sounds  or  letters  formed  into  words  and  employed  for  the  expres- 
sion of  tlwught, 

OBS.  2. — Letters  claim  to  be  a  part  of  language,  not  merely  because 
they  represent  articulate  sounds,  or  spoken  words,  but  because  they  form 
words  of  themselves,  and  have  the  power  to  become  intelligible  signs  of 
ehought,  even  independently  of  sound.  Literature  being  the  counter- 
part of  speech,  and  more  plenteous  in  words,  the  person  who  cannot 
read  and  write  is  about  as  deficient  in  language  as  the  well-instructed 
deaf  mute :  perhaps,  more  so ;  for  copiousness,  even  of  speech,  results 
from  letters. 

By  grammar  we  learn  how  to  use  language  correctly 
both  in  speaking  and  in  writing. 

English  grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking  and  writ- 
ing the  English  language, correctly. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts,  namely,  Orthography, 
Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosod^. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters,  syllables,  separate 
words,  and  spelling. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of  speech, 
with  their  classes  and  modifications. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  government, 
and  arrangement,  of  words  in  sentences. 

Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  figures,  and 
versification. 


PART    I. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 

•    Orthography   treats    of    letters,    syllables,    separate 
words,  and  spelling. 

i.— LETTERS. 

• 

A  letter  is  an  alphabetic  mark,  or  character,  commonly 
representing  some  elementary  sound  of  a  word. 

An  elementary  sound  of  a  word,  is  a  simple  or  pri- 
mary sound  of  the  human  voice,  used  in  speaking. 

The  sound  of  a  letter  is  commonly  called  its  power : 
when  any  letter  of  a  word  is  not  sounded,  it  is  said  to  be 
silent  or  mute. 

The  letters  in  the  English  alphabet  are  twenty-six  ;  the  ele- 
mentary sounds  in  the  language  are  about  thirty-six. 

A  knowledge  of  the  letters  consists  in  an  acquaintance  with 
their  names,  their  classes,  their  powers,  and  their  forms. 

The  letters  are  printed,  written,  or  otherwise  represented 
in  a  variety  of  forms.  The  following  are  the  four  chief  modes 
of  representation : — 

1.  Roman  :  A  a,  B  b,  C  c,  D  d,  E  e,  F  f,  G  g,  H  h, 
I  i,  J  j,  K  k,  L  1,  M  m,  N  n,  O  o,  P  p,  Q  q,  K  r,  S  s,  T  t, 
U  u,  Y  v,  W  w,  X  x,  Y  y,  Z  z. 

2.  Italic :  A  a,  E  ~b,  C  c,  D  d,  E  e,  Ff,  G  g,  Hli,  li, 
J  j,  JT&,  L  I,  Mm,  Nn,   O  o,  *P  p,   Q  q,  E  r,  S  s,  Tt, 
Uu,  Vv, 


<8  e. 


4.  Old  English  :  Ql  a,  13  b,  (SI  c,  ED  b,  €  e,  iF f,  (^  gf 
^  l)t  I  i,  S  jt  H  k,  £  1,  ill  tn,  N  n,  ©  0,  f)  p,  <&  q,  E  r, 
Q  s,  Q:  tt  H  n,  t)  t),  tD  ro,  X  ? 


Names  of  the  Lette 


The  names  of  the  letters,  as  now  commonly  spoken  and 
written  in  English,  are  A,  Bee,  Gee,  Dee,  E,  Eff,  Gee,  Aitch, 
I,  Jay,  Kay,  Ell,  Em,  En,  0,  Pee,  Kue,  Ar,  Ess,  Tee,  U,  Vee, 
Double  -u,  Ex,  Wy,  Zee. 

OBS.  1.  —  The  names  of  the  letters,  as  expressed  in  the  modern  lan- 
guages, are  mostly  framed  with  reference  to  their  powers,  or  sounds.  Yet 
is  there  in  English  no  letter  of  which  the  name  is  always  identical  with 
its  power;  for  A,  E,  /,  0,  and  U,  are  the  only  letters  which  can  name 
themselves,  and  all  these  have  other  sounds  than  those  which  their 
names  express. 

OBS.  2.  —  Those  letters  which  name  themselves,  take  for  their  names 
those  sounds  which  they  usually  represent  at  the  end  of  an  accented 
syllable  ;  thus  the  names,  A,  E,  /,  0,  U,  are  uttered  with  the  sounds 
given  to  the  same  letters  in  the  first  syllables  of  the  other  names,  Abel, 
Enoch,  ISMIC,  Obed,  Urim  ;  or  in  the  first  syllables  of  the  common  words, 
paper,  penal,  pilot,  potent,  pupil.  The  other  letters,  most  of  which  can 
never  be  perfectly  sounded  alone,  have  names  in  which  their  powers 
are  combined  with  other  sounds  more  vocal  ;  as,  Bee,  Gee,  Dee,  —  Ett, 
Ein,  En,—  Jay,  Kay,  Kue.  But,  in  this  respect,  the  terms  Aitch  and 
Double-u  are  irregular  ;  because  they  have  no  obvious  reference  to  the 
powers  of  the  letters  thus  named. 

OBS.  3  —  Letters,  like  all  other  things,  must  be  learned  and  spoken  of  by 
their  names  ;  yet,  as  the  simple  characters  are  better  known  and  more 
easily  exhibited  than  their  written  names,  the  former  are  often  substi- 
tuted for  the  latter,  and  are  read  as  the  words  for  which  they  are  assumed. 

OBS.  4.  —  The  letters,  once  learned,  may.  be  used  unnamed;  and  so  are 
they  always  used,  except  in  oral  spelling,  or  when  some  of  their  own 
number  are  to  be  particularized. 


LETTERS.  25 

Classes  of  the  Letters. 

The  letters  are  divided  into  two  general  classes,  vowels 
and  consonants. 

A  vowel  is  a  letter  which  forms  a  perfect  sound  when 
uttered  alone  ;  as,  a,  e,  o. 

A  consonant  is  a  letter  which  cannot  be  perfectly 
uttered  till  joined  to  a  vowel ;  as,  b,  c,  d. 

The  vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  w,  and  sometimes  w  and  y. 
All  the  other  letters  are  consonants. 

W  or  y  is  called  a  consonant  when  it  precedes  a  vowel 
heard  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  wine,  twine,  whine  •  ye, 
yet,  youth  :  in  all  other  cases,  these  letters  are  vowels  ;  as 
in  newly,  dewy,  eye-brow  •  Yssel,  Ystadt,  yttria. 

Classes  of  Consonants. 

The  consonants  are  divided  into  semivowels  and 
mutes. 

A  semivowel  is  a  consonant  which  can  be  imperfectly 
sounded  without  a  vowel,  so  that  at  the  end  of  a  syllable 
its  sound  may  be  protracted ;  as,  I,  n,  z,  in  al,  an,  az. 

A  mute  is  a  consonant  which  cannot  be  sounded  at  all 
without  a  vowel,  and  which  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  sud- 
denly stops  the  breath ;  as,  k,  p,  t,  in  ak,  op,  at. 

The  semivowels  are  f,  h,  j,  Z,  m,  n,  r,  s,  v,  w,  x,  y,  z,  and  c 
and  g  soft :  but  w  or  y  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  is  a  vowel ; 
and  the  sound  of  c,  f,  g,  h,  j,  s,  or  x,  can  be  protracted  only  as 
an  aspirate,  or  strong  breath. 

Four  of  the  semivowels, — I,  m,  n,  and  r, — are  termed  liquids, 
on  account  of  the  fluency  of  their  sounds  ;  and  four  others, — 
v,  w,  y,  and  z, — are  likewise  more  vocal  than  the  aspirates. 

The  mutes  are  eight ;  b,  d,  k,  p,  q,  t,  and  c  and  g  hard : 
three  of  these, — k,  q,  and  c  hard — sound  exactly  alike :  6,  d, 
and  g  hard,  stop  the  voice  less  suddenly  than  the  rest. 


26  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

OBS.  1. — The  foregoing  division  of  the  letters  is  of  very  great  antiquity, 
and,  in  respect  to  its  principal  features,  sanctioned  by  almost  universal 
authority.  Aristotle,  three  hundred  and  thirty  years  before  Christ,  di- 
vided the  Greek  letters  into  vowels,  semivowels,  and  mutes,  and  declared 
that  no  syllable  could  be  formed  without  a  vowel.  Some  modern 
writers,  however,  not  well  satisfied  with  this  ancient  distribution  of  the 
elements  of  learning,  have  contradicted  the  Stagirite,  and  divided  both 
sounds  and  letters  into  new  classes,  with  various  new  names.  Dr.  Rush, 
author  of  "the  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Voice,"  resolves  the  letters 
into  "tonics,  subtonics,  and  atonies;"  and  avers  that  "consonants  alone 
may  form  syllables."  Other  authors  have  used  the  terms  vocals,  sub- 
vocals,  and  aspirates  in  classifying  the  elementary  sounds. 

OBS.  2. — Certain  consonants  or  consonantal  sounds  are  often  dis- 
tinguished in  pairs,  by  way  of  contrast  with  each  other,  the  one  being 
called  fiat  and  the  other  sliarp  :  as,  b  and  p ;  d  and  t ;  g  hard  and  k  ; 
j  and  cJi ;  v  and  //  tli  flat  and  th  sharp ;  z  and  sharp  s ;  zli  and  sh. 
These,  with  reference  to  each  other,  are  sometimes  termed  correlatives 
or  cognates. 

Powers  of  the  Letters. 

The  powers  of  the  letters  are  properly  those  elementary 
sounds  which  their  figures  are  used  to  represent ;  but  letters 
formed  into  words  are  capable  of  communicating  thought 
independently  of  sound. 

The  vowel  sounds  which  form  the  basis  of  the  Eng- 
lish language,  and  which  ought  therefore  to  be  perfectly 
familiar  to  every  one  who  speaks  it,  are  those  which  are  heard 
at  the  beginning  of  the  words,  ate,  at,  ah,  all,  eel,  ell,  isle,  ill, 
old,  on,  ooze,  use,  us,  and  that  of  u  in  butt. 

In  the  formation  of  words  or  syllables,  some  of  these  four- 
teen primary  sounds  may  be  joined  together,  as  in  ay,  oil,  out, 
owl ;  and  all  of  them  may  be  preceded  or  followed  by  certain 
motions  and  positions  of  the  lips  and  tongue,  which  will 
severally  convert  them  into  other  terms  in  speech.  Thus  the 
same  essential  sounds  may  be  changed  into  a  new  series  of 
words  by  an/;  as,  fate,  fat,  far,  fall,  feel,  fell,  file,  fill,  fold, 
fond,  fool,  fuse,  fuss,  full.  Again,  into  as  many  more  with  a 
p  ;  as,  pate,  pat,  par,  pall,  peel,  pell,  pile,  pill,  pole,  pond,  pool} 
pule,  pu 


LETTERS.  27 

The  simple  consonant  sounds  in  English  are 
twenty-two :  they  are  marked  by  b,  d,  f,  g  hard,  h,  k,  I,  m,  n, 
ng,  p,  r,  s,  sh,  t,  th  sharp,  th  flat,  v,  w,  y}  z,  and  zh.  But  zh  is 
written  only  to  show  the  sound  of  other  letters  ;  as  of  s  in 
pleasure,  or  z  in  azure. 

All  these  sounds  are  heard  distinctly  in  the  following  words: 
buy,  die,  fie,  guy,  high,  kie,  lie,  my,  nigh,  eying,  pie,  rye,  sigh, 
shy,  tie,  thigh,  thy,  vie,  we,  ye,  zebra,  seizure.  Again :  most  of 
them  may  be  repeated  in  the  same  word  if  not  in  the  same 
syllable ;  as  in  bibber,  diddle,  fifty,  giggle,  high-hung,  cackle, 
lily,  mimic,  ninny,  singing,  pippin,  mirror,  hissest,  flesh-brush, 
tittle,  thinketh,  thither,  vivid,  witwal,  union,  vision. 

OBS.  1. — Thje  possible  combinations  and  mutations  of  the  twenty-six 
letters  of  our  alphabet  are  many  millions  of  millions.  But  those  clusters 
which  are  unpronounceable,  are  useless.  Of  such  as  may  be  easily 
uttered,  there  are  more  than  enough  for  all  the  purposes  of  useful  writ- 
ing, or  the  recording  of  speech. 

Thus  it  is,  that  from  principles  so  few  and  simple  as  about  six  or  seven 
and  thirty  plain  elementary  sounds,  represented  by  characters  still  fewer, 
we  derive  such  a  variety  of  oral  and  written  signs,  as  may  suffice  to  ex- 
plain or  record  all  the  sentiments  and  transactions  of  all  men  in  all  ages. 

OBS.  2. — Different  vowel  sounds  are  produced  by  opening  the  mouth 
differently,  and  placing  the  tongue  in  a  peculiar  manner  for  each ;  but 
the  voice  may  vary  in  loudness,  pitch,  or  time,  and  still  utter  the  same 
vowel  power. 

OBS.  3. — Each  of  the  vowel  sounds  may  be  variously  expressed  by 
letters.  About  half  of  them  are  sometimes  words  :  the  rest  are  seldom, 
if  ever,  used  alone  even  to  form  syllables.  But  the  reader  may  easily 
learn  to  utter  them  all,  separately,  according  to  the  foregoing  series.  Let 
us  note  them  as  plainly  as  possible :  eigh,  &,  ah,  awe,  eh,  e",  eye,  1,  oh, 
o,  oo,  yew,  ti,  u.  Thus  the  eight  long  sounds,  eigh,  ah,  awe,  eh,  eye,  <>' , 
ooh,  yew,  are,  or  may  be  words ;  but  the  six  less  vocal,  called  the  short 
vowel  sounds,  as  in  at,  et,  it,  ot,  ut,  put,  are  commonly  heard  only  in 
connection  with  consonants ;  except  the  first,  which  is  perhaps  the  most 
frequent  sound  of  the  vowel  A  or  a — a  sound  sometimes  given  to  the 
word  a,  perhaps  most  generally ;  as  in  the  phrase,  "twice  a  day." 

OBS.  4. — With  us,  the  consonants  J  and  X  represent,  not  simple,  but 
complex  sounds :  hence  they  are  never  doubled.  J  is  equivalent  to 
dzh ;  and  X,  either  to  ks  or  to  gz.  The  former  ends  no  English  word, 
and  the  latter  begins  none.  To  the  initial  X  of  foreign  words,  we 
always  give  the  simple  sound  of  Z ;  as  in  Xerxes,  xebec, 


28  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

OBS.  5. — The  consonants  C  and  Q  have  no  sounds  peculiar  to  them- 
selves. Q  has  always  the  power  of  k,  and  is  constantly  followed  by  u 
and  some  vowel  or  two  more  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  quake,  quest, 
quit,  quoit.  C  is  hard,  like  k,  before  a,  o,  and  u  ;  and  soft,  like  *,  before 
e,  i,  and  y :  thus  the  syllables  ca,  cet  ci,  co,  cu,  cy,  are  pronounced  ka,  set 
si,  ko,  ku,  #y.  8  before  c  preserves  the  former  sound,  but  coalesces 
with  the  latter ;  hence  the  syllables,  sea,  see,  sci,  sco,  scu,  scy,  are  sounded 
*'••>!,  se,  si,  sko,  sku,  sy.  Ce  and  ci  have  sometimes  the  sound  of  sh ;  as 
in  ocean,  social.  Ch  commonly  represents  the  sound  of  tsh;  as  in  church. 

OBS.  6. — G,  as  well  as  C,  has  different  sounds  before  different  vowels. 
G  is  always  hard,  or  guttural,  before  a,  o,  and  u ;  and  generally  soft, 
like  j,  before  e,  i,  or  y :  thus  the  syllables,  ga,  ge,  gi,  go,  gu,  gy,  are  pro- 
nounced ga,  je,  ji,  go,  gu,  jy. 

Forms  of  the  Letters. 

In  the  English  language,  the  Roman  characters  are  gener- 
ally employed  ;  sometimes,  the  Italic  ;  and  occasionally,  thp. 

©15  (Emjlisl).     In  writing,  -we  use  the 

The  letters  have  severally  two  forms,  by  which  they  are 
distinguished  as  capitals  and  small  letters. 

Small  letters  constitute  the  body  of  every  work,  and  capi 
tals  are  used  for  the  sake  of  eminence  and  distinction. 

Hulesfor  the  use  of  Capitals. 

RULE  I. — TITLES  OP  BOOKS. 

The  titles  of  books,  and  the  heads  of  their  principal  divisions,  should 
be  printed  in  capitals.  When  books  are  merely  mentioned,  the  chief' 
words  in  their  titles  begin  with  capitals,  and  the  other  letters  are  small : 
as,  "  Pope's  Essay  on  Man." 

RULE  n. — FIRST  WORDS. 

The  first  word  of  every  distinct  sentence,  or  of  any  clause  separately 
numbered  or  paragraphed,  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

RULE  ILT. — NAMES  OF  DEITY. 

All  names  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  capitals  ;  as,  God,  Jehovah, 
the  Almighty,  the  Supreme  Being. 

RULE  IV.— PROPER  NAMES. 

Titles  of  office  or  honor,  and  proper  names  of  every  description,  should 
begin  with  capitals;  as,  Chief  Justice  Hale,  William,  London,  the  Park, 
the  Albion ,  the  Spectator,  the  Thames. 


SYLLABLES.  29 

RULE  V. — OBJECT  PERSONIFIED. 

The  name  of  an  object  personified,  when  it  conveys  an  idea  strictly 
individual,  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, 

"  Come,  gentle  8pring,  ethereal  mildness,  come." 

RULE  VI. — WORDS  DERIVED. 

Words  derived  from  proper  names  of  persons  or  places  should  begir. 
with  capitals ;  as,  Newtonian,  Grecian,  Eoman. 

RULE  VII.  —  I  AND  O. 

The  words  /and  0  should  always  be  capitals ;  as,  "  Out  of  the  depths 
have  /cried  unto  thee,  0  Lord." 

RULE  VIII.— IN  POETRY. 

Every  line  in  poetry,  except  what  is  regarded  as  making  but  one 
verse  with  the  line  preceding,  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, 
"  Our  sons  their  fathers'  failing  language  see, 
And  such  as  Chaucer  is,  shall  Dryden  be." — Pope. 

RULE  IX.— EXAMPLES,  ETC. 

A  full  example,  a  distinct  speech,  or  a  direct  quotation,  should  begin 
with  a  capital ;  as,  "  Remember  this  maxim  :  '  Know  thyself.' "  "  Vir- 
gil says,  '  Labor  conquers  all  things. '  " 

RULE  X. — CHIEF  WORDS. 

Other  words  of  particular  importance,  and  such  as  denote  the  princi- 
pal subjects  of  discourse,  may  be  distinguished  by  capitals.  Proper 
names  freouently  have  capitals  throughout. 


II.-SYLLABLES. 

A  syllable  is  one  or  more  letters  pronounced  in  one 
sound,  and  is  either  a  word  or  a  part  of  a  word ;  as,  a,  an, 
ant. 

In  every  word  there  are  as  many  syllables  as  there  are 
distinct  sounds ;  as,  gram-ma-ri-an. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable  ;  a 
word  of  two  syllables,  a  dissyllable  ;  a  word  of  three 
syllables,  a  trisyllable  ;  and  a  word  of  four  or  more 
tables,  a  polysyllable. 


30  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

'   Diphthongs  and  Triphthongs. 

A  diphthong  is  two  vowels  joined  in  one  syllable; 
as,  ea  in  beat,  ou  in  sound. 

A  proper  diphthong  is  a  diphthong  in  which  both 
the  vowels  are  sounded  ;  as,  oi  in  voice. 

An  improper  diphthong  is  a  diphthong  in  which 
only  one  of  the  vowels  is  sounded ;  as,  oa  in  loaf. 

A  triphthong  is  three  vowels  joined  in  one  syllable; 
as,  eau  in  beau,  iew  in  view. 

A  proper  triphthong  is  a  triphthong  in  which  all 
the  vowels  are  sounded ;  as,  uoy  in  ~buoy. 

An  improper  triphthong  is  a  triphthong  in  which 
only  one  or  two  of  the  vowels  are  sounded ;  as,  eau  in 
beauty,  iou  in  anxious. 

Syllabication. 

In  dividing  words  into  syllables,  we  are  to  be  directed 
chiefly  by  the  ear  ;  it  may  however  be  proper  to  observe, 
as  far  as  practicable,  the  following  rules : — 

RULE  I. — CONSONANTS. 

Consonants  should  generally  be  joined  to  the  vowels  or  diphthongs 
which  they  modify  in  utterance  ;  as,  ap-os-tol-i-cal. 

RULE  II. — VOWELS. 

Two  vowels,  coming  together,  if  they  make  not  a  diphthong,  must  be 
parted  in  dividing  the  syllables;  as,  a-e-ri-al. 

RULE  III. — TERMINATIONS. 

Derivative  and  grammatical  terminations  should  generally  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  radical  words  to  which  they  have  been  added ;  as, 
Tiarm-less,  great-ly,  con-nect-ed. 

RULE  IV. — PREFIXES. 

Prefixes  in  general  form  separate  syllables ;  as,  mis-place,  out-ride,  up- 
lift :  but  if  their  own  primitive  meaning  be  disregarded,  the  case  may 
be  otherwise ;  thus  re-create  and  rec-reate  are  words  of  different  import, 


WORDS.  31 

RULE  V. — COMPOUNDS. 

Compounds,  when  divided,  should  be  divided  into  the  simple  words 
which  compose  them  ;  as,  no-wfiere. 

RULE  VI. — FULL  LINES. 

At  the  end  of  a  line,  a  word  may  be  divided,  if  necessary ;  but  a  sjl 
lable  must  never  be  broken. 


III.— WORDS. 

A  word  is  one  or  more  syllables  spoken  or  written  as 
the  sign  of  some  idea,  or  of  some  manner  of  thought. 

Species  and  Figure  of  Words. 

Words  are  distinguished  as  primitive  or  derivative, 
and  as  simple  or  compound.  The  former  division  is 
called  their  species  ;  the  latter,  their  figure. 

A  primitive  word  is  one  that  is  not  formed  from  any 
simpler  word  in  the  language  ;  as,  harm,  great,  connect. 

A  derivative  word  is  one  that  is  formed  from  some 
simpler  word  in  the  language  ;  as,  harmless,  greatly,  con- 
nected, disconnect,  unconnected. 

A  simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  compounded,  not 
composed  of  other  words ;  as,  watch,  man,  never,  the,  less. 

A  compound  word  is  one  that  is  composed  of  two 
or  more  simple  words ;  as,  watchman,  nevertheless. 

Permanent  compounds  are  consolidated ;  as,  'bookstore,, 
housekeeper:  others,  which  may  be  called  temporary  com 
pounds,  are  formed  by  the  hyphen ;  as,  glass-house,  school 
master. 

Rules  for  the  Figure  of  Words. 

I. — Words  regularly  or  analogically  united,  and  commonly  known  as 
forming  a  compound,  should  never  be  needlessly  broken  apart 

IT. — When  the  simple  words  would  only  form  a  regular  phrase,  of  the 
same  meaning,  the  compounding  of  any  of  them  ojight  to  be  avoided, 


32  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

HI. — Words  otherwise  liable  to  be  misunderstood,  must  be  joined  to- 
gether or  written  separately,  as  the  sense  and  construction  may  happen 
to  require. 

IV. — When  two  or  more  compounds  are  connected  in  one  sentence, 
none  of  them  should  be  split  to  make  an  ellipsis  of  half  a  word. 

V.  —When  the  parts  of  a  compound  do  not  fully  coalesce ;  as,  to-day,  to- 
night, to-morrow ;  or  when  each  retains  its  original  accent,  so  that  the 
compound  has  more  than  one,  or  one  that  is  movable;  as, first-born, 
hanger-on,  laughter-lomng,  the  hyphen  should  be  inserted  between  them. 

VI.— When  a  compound  has  but  one  accented  syllable  in  pronuncia- 
tion, as  watchword,  statesman,  gentleman,  and  the  parts  are  such  as  admit 
of  a  complete  coalescence,  no  hyphen  should  be  inserted  between  them. 


IV.— SPELLING. 

Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  words  by  their  proper 
letters. 

OBS. — This  important  art  is  to  be  acquired  rather  by  means  of  the 
spelling-book  or  dictionary,  and  by  observation  in  reading,  than  by  the 
study  of  written  rules.  The  orthography  of  our  language  is  attended 
with  much  uncertainty  and  perplexity :  many  words  are  variously 
spelled  by  the  best  scholars,  and  many  others  are  not  usually  written  ac- 
cording to  the  analogy  of  similar  words.  But  to  be  ignorant  of  the 
orthography  of  such  words  as  are  uniformly  spelled  and  frequently  used, 
is  justly  considered  disgraceful.  The  following  rules  may  prevent 
some  embarrassment,  and  thus  be  of  service  to  those  who  wish  to  b« 
accurate. 


Rules  for  Spelling. 


RULE  I. — FINAL  F,  L,  OR  S. 

Monosyllables  ending  in  /,  I,  or  s,  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  doubl* 
the  final  consonant;  as,  staff,  mill,  pass:  except  three  \nf-def,  if,  of; 
three  in  i—bul,  sal,  sol;  and  eleven  in  s— as,  gas,  has,  was,  yes,  is,  his, 
this,  us,  thus,  pus. 

RULE  n. — OTHER  FINALS. 

Words  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than  f,  I,  or  s,  do  not  double 
the  final  letter :  except  abb.   ebb,  add.  odd.  egg,   inn,  en',  burr,  purr, 
butt,  buzz,  fuzz,  and  some  proper  names. 


SPELLING. 

RULE  III. — DOUBLING. 
Monosyllables,  and  words  accented  on  the  last  sellable,  when  they 
end  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  or  by  a  vowel 
after  qu,  double  their  final  consonant  before  an  additional  syllable  that 
begins  with  a  vowel :  as,  rob,  robber ;  permit,  permitting ;  acquit,  ac- 
yiittal,  acquitting. 

Exc. — X  final,  being  equivalent  to  ks,  is  nearer  doubled. 

RULE  IV. — No  DOUBLING. 

A  final  consonant,  when  it  is  not  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  or  when 
the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  should  remain  single  before  an 
additional  syllable:  as,  toil,  toiling ;  visit,  visited;  general,  generalize. 

Exc. — But  I  and  s  final  are  sometimes  doubled  (though  according  to 
Webster,  improperly),  when  the  last  syllable  is  not  accented ;  as,  travel, 
traveller;  bias,  biassed. 

RULE  V. — RETAINING. 

Words  ending  with  any  double  letter,  preserve  it  double  before  any 
additional  termination,  not  beginning  with  the  same  letter ;  as  in  the 
following  derivatives  :  seeing,  blissful,  oddly,  hilly,  stiffness,  illness,  small- 
ness,  carelessness,  agreement,  agreeable. 

Exc. — The  irregular  words,  fled,  sold,  told,  dwelt,  spelt,  spilt,  shalt, 
wilt,  blest,  past,  and  the  derivatives  from  the  word  pontiff,  are  excep- 
tions to  this  rule. 

is 
RULE  VI. —FINAL  E. 

The  final  e  mute  of  a  primitive  word,  is  generally  omitted  before  an 
additional  termination  beginning  with  a  vowel :  as,  rate,  ratable  ;  force, 
forcible  ;  rave,  raving ;  eye,  eying. 

Exc. — Words  ending  in  ce  or  ge,  retain  the  e  before  able  or  ous,  to  pre- 
serve the  soft  sounds  of  c  and  g  ;  as,  peace,  peaceable  ;  changt,  chanyt- 
able;  outrage,  outrageous. 

RULE  VII.— FINAL  E. 

The  final  e  of  a  primitive  word,  is  generally  retained  before  an  addi- 
tional termination  beginning  with  a  consonant ;  as,  pale,  paleness  ;  lodge^ 
lodgement. 

Exc. — When  the  e  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  is  sometimes  omitted: 
as,  true,  truly  ;  awe,  awful ;  and  sometimes  retained ;  as,  rue,  rueful  • 
*hoey  sJioeless. 

3 


34  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

RULE  VIII.— FINAL  Y. 

The  final  y  of  a  primitive  word,  when  preceded  by  a  consonant,  is 
changed  into  i  before  an  additional  termination :  as,  merry,  merrier, 
merriest,  merrily,  merriment ;  pity,  pitied,  pities,  pitiest,  pitiless,  pitiful, 
pitiable. 

Exc. — Before  ing,  y  is  retained  to  prevent  the  doubling  of  i ;  as, 
pity,  pitying.  Words  ending  in  ie,  dropping  the  e  by  Rule  6th,  change 
i  into  y,  for  the  same  reason  ;  as,  die,  dying. 

OBS. — When  a  vowel  precedes,  y  should  not  be  changed;  as,  day,  days; 
valley,  valleys  ;  money,  moneys  ;  monkey,  monkeys. 

RULE  IX. — COMPOUNDS. 

Compounds  generally  retain  the  orthography  of  the  simple  words 
which  compose  them ;  as,  hereof,  wherein,  horseman,  recall,  uphitt, 
shellfish. 

Exc. — In  permanent  compounds,  the  words  full  and  all  drop  one  I; 
as,  handful,  careful,  always,  withal :  in  others,  they  retain  both ;  as, 
full-eyed,  aU-wise,  save-all. 

Questions  for  Review. 

L — INTRODUCTORY. 
What  is  an  Idea  ? 
What  is  a  Thought  ? 
What  is  Language  ? 
What  is  the  use  of  Grammar  ? 
What  is  English  Grammar  ? 
How  is  it  divided  ? 
Of  what  does  Orthography  treat  ? 
Of  what  does  Etymology  treat  ? 
Of  what  does  Syntax  treat  ? 
Of  what  does  Prosody  treat  ? 

II.— LETTERS. 

Of  what  does  Orthography  treat  ? 

What  is  a  .Letter.* 

What  is  an  elementary  sound  of  a  word  ? 

What  name  is  given  to  the  sound  of  a  letter  ?— What  epithet,  to  a  letter  not 
sounded  ? 

How  many  letters  are  there  in  English  ?— How  many  sounds  do  they  rep- 
resent ? 

In  what  does  a  knowledge  of  the  letters  consist  ? 

What  variety  is  noticed  iu  letters  that  are  always  the  same  ? 

Whrit  different  sorts  of  types,  or  letters,  axe  used  in  English  ? 


QUESTIONS   FOB   REVIEW.  35 

What  are  the  names  of  the  letters  in  English  ? 

Which  of  the  letters  name  themselves,  and  which  do  not  ? 

What  are  the  names  of  all  in  both  numbers,  singular  and  plural  ? 

III.— CLASSES  OF  LETTERS. 
Into  what  general  classes  are  the  letters  divided  ? 
What  is  a  vowel  ? 
What  is  a  consonant  ? 

What  letters  are  vowels  ?— What,  consonants  ? 
When  are  w  and  y  consonants,  and  when  vowels  ? 
How  are  the  consonants  divided  ? 
What  is  a  semivowel  ? 
What  is  a  mute  ? 

What  letters  are  semivowels,  and  which  of  these  are  aspirates  ? 
What  letters  are  called  liquids,  and  why  ? 
How  many  and  which  are  the  letters  reckoned  mutes  ? 
"  ** 

IV.— POWERS,  OR  SOUNDS. 

What  is  meant,  when  we  speak  of  "  the  powers  of  the  letters?  " 
In  what  series  of  short  words  are  heard  our  chief  vowel  sounds  ? 
How  may  these  sounds  be  modified  to  form  words  or  syllables  ? 
Can  you  form  a  word  from  each  by  means  of  a,nf? 
Will  you  form  another  such  series  with  a  p  ? 
How  many  and  what  are  the  consonant  sounds  in  English  ? 
In  what  series  of  words  may  all  these  sounds  be  heard  ? 
In  what  series  of  words  is  each  of  them  heard  more  than  once  ? 
Do  our  letters  admit  of  combinations  enough  ? 
What  do  we  derive  from  these  elements  of  language? 

V.— FORMS  OP  THE  LETTERS. 

What  is  said  of  the  employment  of  the  several  styles  of  letters  in  English  ? 

What  distinction  of  form  do  we  make  in  each  of  the  letters  ? 

What  is  said  of  small  letters,  and  why  are  capitals  used  ? 

How  many  rules  for  capitals  are  given,  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  titles  of  books  ?— Rule  2d,  of  first  words  ?— Rule  3d,  of 
names  of  Deity  ? — Rule  4th,  of  proper  names  ? — Rule  5th,  of  objects  per- 
sonified?—-Rule  6th,  of  words  der ived  ?— Rule  7th,  of  I  and  O'4— Rule 
8th,  of  poetry  ?-Rule  9th,  of  examples,  etc.?— Rule  10th,  of  chief  words? 

VI.— SYLLABLES. 
What  is  a  syllable  ? 

Can  the  syllables  of  a  word  be  perceived  by  the  ear  ? 
What  is  a  word  of  one  syllable  called  ?— a  word  of  two  syllables  ?— of  three  ? 

—of  four  or  more  ? 
What  is  a  diphthong  ? 

What  is  a  proper  diphthong  ?— an  improper  diphthong  ? 
What  is  a  triphthong  ? 


36  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

What  is  a  proper  triphthong  ? — An  improper  triphthong  ? 

What  chiefly  directs  us  in  dividing  words  into  syllables  ? 

How  many  rules  of  syllabication  are  given,  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 

What  says  Rule  1st,  of  consonants  ?— Rule  2d.  of  vowels  ? — Rule  3d,  of  ter- 
minations ?— Rule  4th,  of  prefixes  ? — Rule  5th,  of  compounds  ? — Rule  6th, 
of  lines  full? 

VII.— WORDS. 
What  is  a  word  ? 

How  are  words  distinguished  in  regard  to  species  and  figure. 
What  is  a  primitive  word  ? 
What  is  a  derivative  word  ? 
What  is  a  simple  word  ? 
What  is  a  compound  word  ? 

How  do  permanent  compounds  differ  from  others  ? 

How  many  are  the  rules  for  the  figure  of  words,  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 
What  says  rule  1st,  of  compounds? — Rule  3d,  of  simples? — Rule  3d,  of  the 

sense?— Rule  4th,  of  ellipses  ?— Rule  5th,  of  the  hyphen  ?— Rule  6th,  of 

using  no  hyphen  ? 

VIII.  —  SPELLING. 

What  is  spelling  ? 

How  is  this  art  to  be  acquired  ? 

How  many  rules  for  spelling  are  there,  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  final  /,  I,  or  s  /—Rule  2d,  of  other  finals  /—Rule  3d,  of 
the  doubling  of  consonants  ? — Rule  4th,  against  the  doubling  of  conso- 
nants ?— Rule  5th,  of  retaining  /—Rule  6th,  of  final  e  /—Rule  7th,  of 
final  e  /—Rule  8th,  of  final  y  /—Rule  9th,  of  compounds  / 

Exercises  for  Writing. 

I. — CAPITALS. 

These  exercises  are  classified  according  to  rules  on  pages  24,  25. 

1 .  The  pedant  quoted  Johnson's  dictionary  of  the  english  language, 
Gregory's  dictionary  of  arts  and  sciences,  Crabb's  english  synonymes, 
V/ulker's  key  to  the  pronunciation  of  proper  names,  Sheridan's  rhetori- 
cal grammar,  and  the  diversions  of  purley. 

2.  gratitude  is  a  delightful  emotion,     the  grateful  heart  at  once  per- 
forms its  duty  and"  endears  itself  to  others. 

3.  What  madness  and  folly,  to  deny  the  great  first  cause !      Shall 
mortal  man  presume  against  his  maker  ?  shall  he  not  fear  the  omnipo- 
tent ?  shall  he  not  reverence  the  everlasting  one  ? — '  The  fear  of  the  lord 
is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. ' 

4.  xerxes  the  great,  emperor  of  persia,  united  the  medes,  persians, 
bactrians,  lydians,  assyrians,  hyrcanians,  and  many  other  nations,  in  an 
expedition  against  greeoe. 


EXERCISES   FOR  WRITING.  37 

5.  I  observed  that,  when  the  votaries  of  religion  were  led  aside,  she 
commonly  recalled  them  by  her  emissary  conscience,  before  habit  had 
time  to  enchain  them. 

6.  Hercules  is  said  to  have  killed  the  nemean  lion,  the  erymanthian 
boar,  the  lernean  serpent,  and  the  stymphalian  birds.       The  Christian 
religion  has  brought  all  mythologic  stories  and  milesian  fables  into  di^> 
repute. 

7.  i  live  as  i  did,  i  think  as  i  did,  i  love  you  as  i  did ;  but  all  these 
are  to  no  purpose  ;  the  world  will  not  live,  think,  or  love  as  i  do. — o 
wretched  prince  !  o  cruel  reverse  of  fortune  !  o  father  Micipsa  1 

8.  are  these  thy  views  ?  proceed,  illustrious  youth, 
and  virtue  guard  thee  to  the  throne  of  truth  ! 

9.  Those  who  pretend  to  love  peace,  should  remember  this  maxim : 
"  it  is  the  second^blow  that  makes  the  battle." 

n. — CAPITALS.    MISCELLANEOUS. 

'  time  and  i  will  challenge  any  other  two,'  said  philip. — '  thus,'  said 
diogenes,  'do  I  trample  on  the  pride  of  plato.' — 'true,'  replied  plato ; 
'  but  is  it  not  with  the  greater  pride  of  diogenes  ?  ' 

the  father  in  a  transport  of  joy,  burst  into  the  following  words :  '  o 
excellent  scipio  !  heaven  has  given  thee  more  than  human  virtue  !  o 
glorious  leader !  o  wondrous  youth ! ' 

epaminondas,  the  theban  general,  was  remarkable  for  his  love  of 
truth,  he  never  told  a  lie,  even  in  jest. 

and  pharaoh  said  to  Joseph,  ' '  say  to  thy  brethren,  '  do  this — lade  your 
beasts,  and  go  to  the  land  of  canaan. '  " 

who  is  she  that,  with  graceful  steps  and  a  lively  air,  trips  over  yonder 
plain  ?  her  name  is  health  :  she  is  the  daughter  of  exercise  and  temper- 
ance. 

to  the  penitent  sinner,  a  mediator  and  intercessor  with  the  sovereign 
of  the  universe,  appear  comfortable  names. 

the  murder  of  abel,  the  curse  and  rejection  of  cain,  and  the  birth 
and  adoption  of  seth,  are  almost  the  only  events  related  of  the  immedi- 
ate family  of  adam,  after  his  fall. 

on  what  foundation  stands  the  warrior's  pride, 
how  just  his  hopes,  let  Swedish  charles  decide. 

in  every  leaf  that  trembles  to  the  breeze, 
i  hear  the  voice  of  god  among  the  trees. 


38  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

III.  — SYLLABLES. 
Divide  the  following  words  into  their  proper  syllables  : — 

Ado,  adorn,  adown,  adrift,  anoint,  athwart,  awry,  bespeak,  bestow, 
between,  encroach,  incrust,  foreknow,  forestall,  forswear,  underanged, 
preterit,  retrace,  unoiled,  unrepaid,  unresting,  underbid,  upholder, 
withal. 

Civil,  color,  copy,  damask,  dozen,  ever,  feather,  gather,  heaven, 
lemon,  meadow,  never,  orange,  punish,  robin,  shovel,  timid,  whither, 
benefit,  canister,  generous,  academical,  several,  miserable,  tolerable, 
epidemic,  paralytic,  liberal,  characteristic,  experimental. 

Folio,  genial,  genius,  glossy,  junior,  mover,  satiate,  seizure,  vitiate, 
ambrosia,  convenient,  ingenious,  omniscience,  peculiar,  substantiate, 
sociable,  partiality,  pecuniary,  annunciate,  enunciate,  appreciate, 
associate,  expatiate,  negotiate. 

Eastern,  pallet,  stormy,  England,  anthill,  cowslip,  farewell,  foretop, 
hogshead,  homeward,  sandstone,  forever,  husbandman,  painstaker, 
bookseller,  acquittal,  requisition,  architecture,  machinery,  aqueduct, 
arable,  horrible,  inflammation,  impossible,  preferable,  perilous,  business, 
preferred. 

IV.— FIGURE  OF  WORDS. 
Correct  the  errors  in  the  following,  according  to  the  rules  on  pages  27,  2& 

1.  The  shine  of  the  plough  share  is  the  farmer's  wealth. 

The  cross  row  has  ever  had  some  thing  of  a  magic  spell  in  it. 
The  old  fashioned  are  apt  to  think  the  world  grows  worse. 
The  stealing  of  water  melons  may  lead  to  house  breaking. 
A  good  clothes  brush  helps  greatly  to  make  a  gentle  man. 

2.  An  ill-tongue  is  a  fearful  corrupter  of  good-manners. 
Envy  not  the  good-luck  of  prosperous  transgressors. 

St.  Paul  admonishes  Timothy  to  refuse  old-wives'-fables. 

Lawmakers  have  often  been  partial  to  male-descendants. 

New-year's-gifts  brighten  many  a  face  on  new-year's  day. 
\.  They  that  live  in  glass-houses  should  not  throw  stones. 

A  glass  house  is  a  house  in  which  glass  is  manufactured. 

A  spirit  stirring  discourse  is  seldom  a  long  winded  one. 

Knowledge  and  virtue  are  the  stepping  stones  to  honor. 

The  American  whip  poor  Will  is  a  night  warbling  bird. 
4.  Let  school  and  meeting-houses  be  pleasantly  located. 

The  teapot  and  kettle  are  now  deemed  indispensable. 

Both  the  ten  and  the  eight  syllable  verses  are  iambics. 

Most,  at  six  or  seventeen  years  of  age,  are  men  and  women. 

A  ketch  is  a  vessel  with  two  masts,  a  main  and  muzen-mast 


EXERCISES   FOB  WRITING.  39 

5.  The  bloodyminded  man  seldom  dwells  long  in  safety. 

A  tiresmith  puts  on  wheelbands  redhot,  then  cools  them. 
Plato  was  so  called  because  he  was  broadshouldered. 
Timehonored  custom  may  be  souldestroying  folly. 
Is  erenhanded  honesty  expected  in  slavemerchants  ? 

6.  A  good  pay-master  is  always  a  man  of  some  fore-thought. 
The  glory  of  the  common-wealth  is  the  states-man's  boast. 
Bain-bows  are  made  of  sun-shine  dissolved  in  sky  water. 

V.— SPELLING. 

In  the  following  exercises  the  pupil  is  required  to  correct  the  errors  in 
spelling  according  to  the  rules  on  pages,  28,  29,  30. 

I. 

1.  Few  knowthe  value  of  a  friend,  til  they  lose  him. 
Good  men  pas  by  offences,  and  take  no  revenge. 
Hear  patiently,  iff  thou  wouldst  speak  wel. 

2.  The  business  of  warr  is  devastation  and  destruction. 
To  er  is  human ;  to  forgive,  divine. 

A  bad  speller  should  not  pretend  to  scholarshipp. 

3.  It  often  requires  deep  diging,  to  obtain  pure  water. 
Praise  is  most  shuned  by  the  praiseworthy. 

He  that  hoists  too  much  sail,  runs  a  risk  of  overseting. 

4.  Quarrels  are  more  easily  begun  than  endded. 
Contempt  leaves  a  deepper  scar  than  anger. 

Of  all  tame  animals  the  flatterrer  is  the  most  mischievous. 

5.  Smalness  with  talness  makes  the  figure  too  slender. 
Heedlesness  is  always  in  danger  of  embarrasment. 
The  recklesness  of  license  is  no  attribute  of  fredom. 

6.  Good  examples  are  very  convinceing  teachers. 
Doubts  should  not  excite  contention,  but  inquirey. 
Obligeing  conduct  procures  deserved  esteem. 

7.  Wise  men  measure  time  by  their  improvment  of  it. 
Learn  to  estimate  all  things  by  their  real  usfulness. 
Encouragment  increases  with  success. 

8.  Nothing  essential  to  happyness  is  unattainable. 
Vices,  though  near  relations,  are  all  at  varyance. 
Before  thou  denyest  a  favor,  consider  the  request 

9.  Good-wil  is  a  more  powerful  motive  than  constraint. 
A  wel-spent  day  prepares  us  for  sweet  repose. 

The  path  of  fame  is  altogether  an  uphil  road. 


40  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

II. 

1.  He  is  tal  enough  who  walks  uprightly. 
Repetition  makes  smal  transgressions  great. 
Religion  regulates  the  wil  and  affections. 

2.  To  carry  a  ful  cupp  even,  requires  a  steady  hand. 
Idleness  is  the  nest  in  which  mischief  lays  its  egs. 
The  whole  journey  of  life  is  besett  with  foes. 

3.  Peace  of  mind  should  be  prefered  to  bodily  safety. 
A  bad  begining  is  unfavorable  to  success. 

Very  fruitful  trees  often  need  to  be  proped. 

4.  None  ever  gained  esteem  by  tattling  and  gossipping. 
Religion  purifies,  fortifies,  and  tranquillizes  the  mind. 
They  had  all  been  closetted  together  a  long  time. 

5.  Blesed  is  he  whose  transgresion  is  forgiven. 
Indolence  and  listlesness  are  foes  to  happiness. 
Carelesness  has  occasioned  many  a  wearisome  step. 

6.  In  all  thy  undertakeings,  ponder  the  motive  and  the  end. 
We  cannot  wrong  others  without  injureing  ourselves. 

A  dureable  good  cannot  spring  from  an  external  cause. 

7.  Duely  appreciate  and  improve  your  privileges. 

To  borrow  of  future  time,  is  thriftless  managment. 
He  who  is  truely  a  freman  is  above  mean  compliances. 

8.  Pitiing  friends  cannot  save  us  in  a  diing  hour. 
Wisdom  rescues  the  decaies  of  age  from  aversion. 
Vallies  are  generally  more  fertile  than  hills. 

9.  Cold  numness  had  quite  bereft  her  of  sense. 

A  cascade,  or  waterfal,  is  a  charming  object  in  scenery. 
Nettles  grow  in  the  vinyard  of  the  slothfull. 
Tuition  is  lost  on  idlers  and  numbsculs. 


HI. 

1.  He  that  scofs  at  the  crooked,  should  beware  of  stooping. 
Pictures  that  resemble  flowers,  smel  only  of  paint. 
Misdemeanors  are  the  pioneers  of  gros  vices. 

2.  To  remitt  a  wrong,  leaves  the  offender  in  debt. 
Superlative  commendation  is  near  akinn  to  detraction. 
Piety  admitts  not  of  excessive  sorrow. 

3.  You  are  safe  in  forgeting  benefits  you  have  confered. 
He  has  run  well  who  has  outstriped  his  own  errors. 
See  that  you  have  ballast  proportionate  to  your  riging. 

4.  The  biasses  of  prejudice  often  preclude  convincement. 
Bather  follow  the  wise  than  lead  the  foollish. 


EXERCISES  FOE  W&tTItf&.  41 

To  reason  with  the  angry,  is  like  whisperring  to  the  deaf 
A  bigotted  judge  needs  no  time  for  deliberation. 
The  gods  of  this  world  have  many  worshippers. 

5.  Crosness  has  more  subjects  than  admirers. 
Fearlesness  conquers  where  blamelesness  is  armor-bearer. 

6.  Many  things  are  chiefly  valued  for  their  rareity. 
Vicious  old  age  is  hopeless  and  deploreable. 
Irreconcileable  animosity  is  always  blameable. 

7.  Treachery  lurks  beneath  a  guilful  tongue. 
Disobedience  and  mischief  deserve  chastisment. 

By  self-examination,  we  discover  the  lodgements  of  sin. 
The  passions  often  mislead  the  judgement. 

8.  To  be  happy  without  holyness  is  impossible. 
And,  all  within,  were  walks  and  allies  wide. 
Call  impesiection  what  thou  f ancy'st  such. 
Without  fire,  chimnies  are  useless. 

9.  The  true  philanthropist  deserves  a  universal  pasport. 
Ridicule  is  generally  but  the  froth  of  il-nature. 

All  mispent  time  will  one  day  be  regretted. 

IV.  — MISCELLANEOUS. 

Fiction  may  soften,  without  improveing  the  heart. 
Affectation  is  a  sprout  that  should  be  niped  in  the  bud. 
A  covettous  person  is  always  in  want. 
Fashion  is  compareable  to  an  ignis-fatuus. 
Fair  appearances  somtimes  cover  foul  purposes. 
Garnish  not  your  commendations  with  flatterry. 
Never  utter  a  falshood  even  for  truth's  sake. 
Medicines  should  be  administerred  with  caution. 
We  have  here  no  continueing  city,  no  abideing  rest. 
Many  a  trapp  is  laid  to  ensnare  the  feet  of  youth. 
We  are  caught  as  sillyly  as  the  bird  in  the  net. 
By  defering  repentance,  we  accumulate  sorrows. 
To  preach  to  the  droneish,  is  to  waste  your  words. 
We  are  often  benefitted  by  what  we  have  dreaded. 
We  may  be  succesful,  and  yet  disappointed. 
In  rebusses,  pictures  are  used  to  represent  words. 
He  is  in  great  danger  who  parlies  with  conscience. 
Your  men  of  f orhead  .are  magnificent  in  promises. 
A  true  friend  is  a  most  valueable  acquisition. 
It  is  not  a  bad  memory  that  forgets  injuryes. 
Weigh  your  subject  wel,  before  you  speak  positivly. 
Difficulties  are  often  increased  by  mismanagment 


OKTHOGRAPHY. 

Diseases  are  more  easyly  prevented  than  cured. 
Contrivers  of  mischief  often  entrapp  themselves. 
Corrupt  speech  indicates  a  distemperred  mind. 
Asseveration  does  not  allways  remove  doubt. 
Hypocrites  are  like  wolves  in  sheeps'  clotheing. 
Ostentatious  liberallity  is  its  own  paymaster. 

V.  — MISCELLANEOUS. 

A  downhil  road  may  be  travelled  with  ease. 

Distempered  fancy  can  swel  a  molehil  to  a  mountain. 

Let  your  own  unbiassed  judgment  determine. 

A  knave  can  often  undersel  his  honest  neighbors. 

Xenophanes  prefered  reputation  to  wealth. 

True  politeness  is  the  ofspring  of  benevolence. 

Levellers  are  generally  the  dupes  of  designning  men. 

Rewards  are  for  those  who  have  fullfiled  their  duty. 

Who  trusts  a  hungry  boy  in  a  cubburd  of  dainties  ? 

Misery  acquaints  a  man  with  strange  bedfellers. 

The  liberal  man  ties  his  purse  with  a  beau-not. 

Double-deelers  are  seldom  long  in  favor. 

The  characters  of  the  crosrow  have  wrought  wonders. 

The  plagiary  is  a  jacdaw  decked  with  stolen  plumes. 

All  virtues  are  in  agrement ;  all  vices,  at  varyance. 

Personnal  liberty  is  every  man's  natural  birthrite. 

There,  wrapt  in  clouds,  the  blueish  hills  ascend. 

The  birds  frame  to  thy  song  their  chearfull  cherupping. 

There  figgs,  skydyed,  a  purple  hue  disclose. 

Lysander  goes  twice  a  day  to  the  choccolat-house. 

Years  following  years  steal  sumthing  every  day. 

The  soul  of  the  slothfull  does  but  drowse  in  his  body. 

What  think  you  of  a  clergiman  in  a  soldier's  dres  ? 

Justice  is  here  holding  the  stilliards  for  a  balance. 

The  huming-bird  is  somtimes  no  biger  than  a  bumble-be. 

The  muskittoes  will  make  you  as  spoted  as  a  samon-trout 

Cruelty  to  animals  is  a  malicious  and  lo-lived  vice. 

Absolute  Necessity  must  sign  their  deth-warrant. 

He  who  catches  flies,  emulates  the  nat-snaper. 

The  froggs  had  long  lived  unmolested  in  a  horspond. 

"These  are  villanous  creatures,"  says  a  blokheded  boy. 
The  robbin-read-breast  til  of  late  had  rest, 
And  children  sacred  held  a  martin's  nest 


PART   II. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of  speech,  with 
their  classes  and  modifications. 

• 
I.— THE  SENTENCE. 

In  the  utterance  of  any  definite  thought,  such  as,  Birds  fly — TJie  ftun 
shines — Fishes  swim,  there  is  obviously  some  person  or  thing  spoken  of, 
and  something  said  of  that  person  or  thing.  The  former  is  called  the 
subject,  and  the  latter  the  predicate.  When  united  so  as  to  make 
complete  sense,  these  form  what  is  called  a  proposition  ;  and  a 
proposition,  or  a  combination  of  two  or  more  propositions,  forms  a  sen- 
tence. 

Thus  Man  is  mortal  is  a  sentence  containing  one  proposition  ;  and  Art 
is  long,  and  time  is  fleeting  is  a  sentence  containing  two  propositions. 

The  distinction  between  the  subject  and  the  predicate  of  a  sentence 
should  be  clearly  understood.  This  distinction  is  marked  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences: — 


Subjects. 

Birds 

The  flowers 
Perseverance 
The  love  of  truth 
An  honest  man 


Predicates. 

sing. 

are  fading. 

overcomes  all  obstacles. 

will  prevail  over  error. 

is  the  noblest  work  of  God. 


The  following  definitions  will  now  be  understood. 

A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  making  complete 
sense  ;  as,  "Reward  sweetens  labor." — "  The  fear  of  the  Lord 
is  the  beginning  of  wisdom." 


44  ETYMOLOGY. 

Every  sentence  must  contain  two  principal  parts  ;  namely, 
the  subject  and  the  predicate. 

Whatever  is  directly  spoken  of  in  the  sentence  is  the  sub- 
ject ;  as,  "The  sun  has  set." — "Can  you  write?" 

That  which  is  said  of  the  subject  is  the  predicate  ;  as, 
"Beauty  fa  des." 

Any  combination  of  the  subject  and  predicate  is  called  a 
proposition. 

Words  added  to  other  words  in  a  sentence  to  modify  or  limit 
their  meaning  are  called  adjuncts  ;  as,  "A  good  scholai 
rapidly  improves." 

Sentences  are  divided,  with  respect  to  the  nature  of  tht 
propositions  which  they  contain,  into  four  classes  ;  dedara* 
tive,  interrogative,  imperative, and  exclamatory. 

A  sentence  is  declarative,  when  it  expresses  an  affirmation 
or  negation  ;  interrogative,  when  it  expresses  a  question  ;  i??i- 
perative,  when  it  expresses  a  command ;  and  exclamatory, 
when  it  expresses  an  exclamation. 

^Exercises. 

1.  Point  out  the  subject  and  the  predicate  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  state  to  which  of  the  four  classes  each  sentence  belongs. 

OBS. — In  interrogative  and  exclamatory  sentences,  the  words  are  usu- 
ally transposed ;  in  imperative  sentences,  the  subject  is  often  under- 
stood ;  as,  "  Bring  me  a  slate ;  "  in  which  the  subject  is  thou  or  you, 
understood. 

The  tree  bears  fruit.  The  ox  bears  a  yoke.  The  carpenter  uses  >? 
saw.  Avarice  causes  crime.  The  miser  loves  gold.  The  boy  has  told 
an  untruth.  The  merchant  has  made  a  fortune.  The  river  overflowed 
its  banks.  Lend  Charles  a  book.  Has  Mary  received  the  letter  ?  Will 
Richard  return  soon  ?  How  hard  a  task  he  has !  The  scholar's  diligence 
deserves  a  reward.  Do  not  injure  your  neighbor.  How  kindly  he 
treated  his  schoolmate  !  Has  Robert  found  his  pencil  ? 

2.  Write  predicates  for  the  following  subjects. 

Flowers.  Oranges.  Industry.  Honesty.  An  industrious  boy.  A  dis- 
honest clerk.  An  amiable  disposition.  A  good  character.  George 
Washington.  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  Queen  Victoria. 


THE   PARTS   OF    SPEECH.  45 

8.    Write  subjects  for  the  following  predicates. 

is  writing.  was  too  late.  did  not  improve. 

will  be  rewarded.  should  be  treated  with  kindness. 

brings  misery.  is  a  source  of  happiness. 

4.  Insert  as  many  adjuncts  as  possible  to  the  subject  and  predicate  of 
each  of  the  following  sentences. 

Example. 

The  horses  ran. 

The  wUd  horses  ran  away  very  swiftly. 

The  ship  sailed.  Flowers  bloom.  Flowers  fade.  Birds  fly.  The 
sun  shines.  The  scholar  improves.  The  oxen  are  grazing.  The  man 
is  ploughing.  The  dog  is  barking.  The  woman  is  washing.  The  storm 
rages.  The  wind  blows.  The  lightning  flashes.  The  thunder  peals. 


II.-THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

The  words  that  compose  a  sentence  are  used  for  various  purposes  in 
connection  with  the  subject  or  predicate.  Some  are  names  of  persons 
or  things  ;  some  express  action  ;  some,  quality;  others,  relation;  and 
some  are  used  to  connect  words  or  propositions. 

For  this  reason  the  words  or  parts  of  a  sentence  have  been  arranged  in 
classes,  called  the  Parts  Of  Speech. 

The  Parts  of  Speech,  or  sorts  of  words,  in  English,  are 
ten;  namely,  the  article,  the  noun,  the  adjective, 
the  pronoun,  the  verb,  the  participle,  the  adverb, 
the  conjunction,  the  preposition,  and  the  inter- 
jection. 

An  article  is  the  word  the,  an,  or  a,  which  we  put  be- 
fore nouns  to  limit  their  signification  ;  as,  The  air,  the 
stars  ;  an  island,  a  ship. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing, 
that  can  be  known  or  mentioned  ;  as,  George,  York,  man, 
apple,  truth. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun, 
and  generally  expresses  quality ;  as,  A  wise  man ;  a  new 
book.  You  two  are  diligent. 


46  ETYMOLOGY. 

Apronounisa  word  used  instead  of  a  nonn :  as,  "  The 
boy  loves  his  book ;  he  has  long  lessons,  and  he  learns  them 
well." 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be  acted 
icpon  :  as,  I  am,  I  rule,  I  am  ruled  ;  I  love,  thou  lovest,  he 
loves. 

A  participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  participat- 
ing the  properties  of  a  verb,  and  of  an  adjective  or  a  noun. 

It  is  generally  formed  by  adding  ing,  d,  or  ed,  to  the 
verb :  thus,  from  the  verb  rule,  are  formed  three  parti- 
ciples :  two  simple  and  one  compound ;  as,  1,  ruling  •  2, 
ruled •  3,  having  ruled. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  participle,  an 
adjective,  or  another  adverb  ;  and  generally  expresses  time, 
place,  degree,  or  manner  ;  as,  "  They  are  now  here,  study- 
ing very  diligently" 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words  or 
sentences  in  construction,  and  to  show  the  dependence  of 
the  terms  so  connected;  as,  "Thou  and  he  are  happy, 
because  you  are  good." 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  rela- 
tion of  different  things  or  thoughts  to  each  other,  and  is 
generally  placed  before  a  noun  or  a  pronoun ;  as,  "  The 
paper  lies  before  me  on  the  desk." 

An  interjection  is  a  word  that  is  uttered  merely  to 
indicate  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind  ;  as, 
Uh  !  alas  !  ah  !  poh  !  pshaw  !  avaunt ! 

Definitions  of  Terms. 

A  definition  of  anything  or  class  of  things  is  such  a  de- 
scription of  it,  as  distinguishes  that  entire  thing  or  class  from 
every  thing  else,  by  briefly  telling  what  it  is. 

A  rule  Of  grammar  is  some  law,  more  or  less  general, 
by  which  custom  regulates  and  prescribes  the  right  use  of 
language. 


EXERCISES   IN   PARSING.  47 

A  praxis  is  a  method  of  exercise,  showing  the  learner  how 

to  proceed.  (The  word  literally  signifies  action,  doing,  prac- 
tice, or  formal  use.) 

An  example  is  a  particular  instance  or  model,  serving  to 
prove  or  illustrate  some  given  proposition  or  truth. 

An  exercise  is  some  technical  performance  required  of 
the  learner,  in  order  to  test  his  knowledge  or  skill  by  use. 

Parsing  is  the  resolving  or  explaining  of  a  sentence,  or 
of  some  related  word  or  words,  according  to  the  definitions 
and  rules  of  grammar. 

JZxercises  in  Parsing. 
*"  Praxis  I.— Etymological. 

In  the  First  Praxis,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil,  after  analyzing  the  sen- 
tence, by  pointing  out  the  subject  and  predicate,  with  the  adjuncts  in  each, 
to  distinguish  the  different  parts  of  speech,  and  to  assign  a  reason  for 
such  distinction,  by  citing  the  proper  definition,  and  adapting  it  to  each 
particular  case.  Thus  : — 

EXAMPLE  PARSED. 

"  The  patient  ox  submits  to  the  yoke,  and  meekly  performs  the  labor 
required  of  him." 

1.  Submits  is  a  verb,  because  it  signifies  action ; 
Performs  is  also  a  verb,  for  the  same  reason. 

2.  Ox  is  a  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  n  thing ; 
Yoke  and  labor  are  nouns,  for  the  same  reason. 

3.  The  is  an  article,  because  it  limits  the  signification  of  ox,  yoke,  or  labor— th« 

noun  before  which  it  is  placed. 

4.  Patient  is  an  adjective,  because  it  expresses  the  quality  of  the  ox. 

5.  Him  is  a  pronoun,  because  it  is  used  instead  of  the  noun  ox. 

6.  fiequired  is  a  participle,  because  it  expresses  action  like  a  verb,  and  qualifies 

the  noun  labor  like  an  adjective. 

7.  Meekly  is  an  adverb,  because  it  is  added  to  the  verb  performs,  and  express^ 

manner. 

8.  And  is  a  conjunction,  because  it  connects  the  predicates  containing  the  verbs 

submits  and  performs. 

9.  To  is  a  preposition,  because  it  expresses  the  relation  of  the  verb  submits  to  th« 

noun  yoke. 

Note.— The  numbers  are  here  used  to  indicate  the  order  in  which  the  pupil  should,  at 
first,  be  required  to  distinguish  the  parts  of  speech  in  the  sentences  given  in  this  exer- 
cise. The  verb  is  made  the  first  in  this  series  because  it  is  the  word  to  which  all  others 
have  an  immediate  or  remote  relation,  and  because  it  is  easily  recognized,  and,  when 
discovered,  leads  the  mind  necessarily  to  a  knowledge  of  the  other  parts  of  speech  com- 


48  ETYMOLOGY. 

Tirehended  in  the  sentence,  by  showing  the  particular  office  of  every  word.  This  cannot 
be  done,  at  this  stage  of  the  pupil's  progress,  with  a  proper  degree  of  intelligence  and 
precision,  by  mechanically  examining  each  word  in  succession ;  for  the  reason  that  to  do 
PO  requires  him  to  compare  the  distinctive  office  of  each  part  of  speech,  with  the  word  ex- 
amined ;  while  in  these  preliminary  exercises,  he  is  only  required  to  keep  in  mind  the 
character  of  a  single  part  of  speech,  and  compare  it  with  each  word  of  the  sentence  Ln 
*;K -cession.  Besides,  an  eclectic  process  like  that  indicated,  is  better  calculated  to  keep 
rie  interest  and  attention  of  the  pupil  awake,  the  constant  desire  of  discovery  continu- 
..ily  stimulating  mental  activity. 

Evil  communications  corrupt  good  manners. 

Good  books  always  deserve  a  careful  perusal. 

Passionate  men  are  very  easily  irritated. 

Perseverance  finally  overcomes  all  obstacles. 

Human  happiness  is  exceedingly  transient. 

The  industrious  boys  have  recited  their  lessons  well. 

A  landscape  presents  a  pleasing  variety  of  objects. 

The  eagle  has  a  strong  and  piercing  eye. 

The  rose,  the  lily,  and  the  pink  are  fragrant  flowers. 

Sloth  enfeebles  equally  the  bodily  and  the  mental  powers. 

Virtuous  youth  gradually  brings  forward  accomplished  and  flourishing- 
manhood. 

In  the  spring  the  trees  resume  their  verdure. 

Industry  is  needful  in  every  condition  of  life ;  the  price  of  all  im- 
provement is  labor. 


III. -ARTICLES. 

An  article  is  the  word  the,  an,  or  a,  which  we  put  be- 
fore nouns  to  limit  their  signification. 

An  and  a  are  one  and  the  same  article.  An  is  used  whenever  the 
following  word  begins  with  a  vowd  sound  ;  as,  An  art,  an  end,  an  heir, 
fin  inch,  an  ounce,  an  hour,  an  urn. — A  is  used  whenever  the  follow- 
ing word  begins  with  a  consonant  sound;  as,  A  man,  a  house,  a  won- 
der, a  one,  a  yew,  a  use,  a  ewer.  Thus  the  consonant  sounds  of  w  and 
?/,  even  when  expressed  by  other  letters,  require  a  and  not  an  before 
them. 

Classes. 

The  articles  are  distinguished  as  the  definite  and  the 
indefinite. 

The  definite  article  is  the,  which  denotes  some  par- 
ticular thing  or  things ;  as,  The  boy,  the  oranges. 


NOUNS.  49 

The  indefinite  article  is  an  or  a,  which  denotes  one 
thing  of  a  kind,  but  not  any  particular  one ;  as,  A  boy,  cm 
orange. 

Exercises  for  Writing. 

1.  Prefix  the  definite  article  to  the  following  nouns  : 

Path,  paths ;  loss,  losses ;  name,  names ;  page,  pages ;  want,  wants ; 
doubt,  doubts ;  votary,  votaries. 

2.  Prefix  the  indefinite  article  to  the  following  nouns  : 

Age,  error,  idea,  omen,  urn,  arch,  bird,  cage,  dream,  empire,  farm, 
grain,  horse,  idol,  jay,  king,  lady,  man,  novice,  opinion,  pony,  quail, 
raven,  sample,  trade,  uncle,  vessel,  window,  youth,  zone,  whirlwind, 
union,  onion,  unitfeagle,  house,  honor,  hour,  herald,  habitation,  hos- 
pital, harper,  harpoon,  ewer,  eye,  humor. 

3.  Insert  the  definite  article  rightly  in  the  following  phrases : 

George  second— part  first — reasons  most  obvious — good  man — wide 
circle — man  of  honor — man  of  world — old  books — common  people — 
same  person,  smaller  piece— rich  and  poor— first  and  last— all  time — 
great  excess— nine  muses— how  rich  reward— all  ancient  writers— in 
nature  of  things — much  better  course. 

4.  Insert  the  indefinite  article  rightly  in  each  of  the  following  phrases ." 
new  name — very  quick  motion — other  sheep — such  power — what  in- 
stance— great  weight — such   worthy  cause — too  great   difference — high 
honor — humble  station — universal  law — what  strange   event — so   deep 
interest — as  firm  hope — so  great  wit — humorous  story — such  person — few 
dollars— little  reflection. 


IV.— NOUNS. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing, 
that  can  be  known  or  mentioned. 

OBS.  1. — All  words  and  signs  taken  technically  (that  is,  independently 
of  their  meaning,  and  merely  as  things  spoken  of),  are  nouns  ;  or,  rather, 
are  things  read  and  construed  as  nouns  :  as,  "  Us  is  a  personal  pronoun." 
^-Murray.     « '  Th  has  two  sounds,  "—j.  ,v. 
4 


50  ETYMOLOGY. 

OBS.  2. — The  learner  must  observe  the  sense  and  use  of  each  word, 
and  class  it  accordingly:  many  words  commonly  belonging  to  other 
parts  of  speech,  are  occasionally  used  as  nouns ;  as,  1.  "The  Ancient  of 
days." — Bible.  "  Of  the  ancients." — Swift.  "  For  such  impertinents." 
— Steele.  "He  is  an  ignorant  in  it." — Id.  " To  the  nw«. " — Burns. 
2.  "Or  any  he,  the  proudest  of  thy  sort." — Shak.  "  I  am  the  happiest 
the  in  Kent."— Steele.  "The  shes  of  Italy. "—Shak.  "The  hes  in 
birds."— Bacon.  3.  "Avaunt  all  attitude,  and  stare,  and  start,  the- 
atric !  "—Cowper.  "A  may -be  of  mercy  is  insufficient." — Bridge.  4.  "For 
the  producing  of  real  happiness. "—  Crabb.  "Reading,  writing,  and 
ciphering,  are  indispensable  to  civilized  man."  5.  "A  hereafter." — 
Addison.  "The  dread  of  a  hereafter.'" — Putter.  "The  deep  amen." 
—Scott.  "  The  while."— Milton.  6.  "  With  Aarfc,  and  whoop,  and  wild 
haUoo."— Scott.  ' '  Will  cuts  him  short  with  a  *  TFAaJ  ^n  f ' ' '— Addison. 


Classes. 

Nouns  are  divided  into  two  general  classes:  proper 
and  common. 

A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  some  particular  in- 
dividual, or  people,  or  group ;  as,  Adam,  Boston,  the 
Hudson,  the  Romans,  the  Azores,  the  Alps. 

A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or 
class,  of  beings  or  things ;  as,  Beast,  bird,  fish,  insect, — 
creatures,  persons,  children. 

The  particular  classes,  collective,  abstract,  and  verbal  or 
participial,  are  usually  included  among  common  nouns. 
The  name  of  a  thing  sui  generis  is  also  called  common. 

A  collective  noun,  or  noun  of  multitude,  is 
the  name  of  many  individuals  together  ;  as.  Council, 
meeting,  committee,  flock,  v 

An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  some  particular 
quality  considered  apart  from  its  substance  ;  as,  Goodness, 
hardness,  pride,  frailty . 

A  verbal  or  participial  noun  is  the  name  of  some 
action  or  state  of  being,  and  is  formed  from  a  verb,  like  a 
participle,  but  employed  as  a  noun ;  as,  "  The  triumphing 
of  the  wicked  is  short."— Job  xx.,  5. 


NOUNS.  51 

A  thing  sui  generis  (i.e.,  of  its  own  peculiar  kind),  is 
something  which  is  distinguished,  not  as  an  individual  of 
a  species,  but  as  a  sort  by  itself,  without  plurality  in  either 
the  noun  or  the  sort  of  thing ;  as,  Galvanism,  music, 
geometry. 

OBS.  1. — The  proper  name  of  a  person  or  place  with  an  article  pro- 
fixed,  is  generally  used  as  a  common  noun ;  as,  "He  is  the  Cicero  of  his 
age," — that  is,  the  orator. — "Many  a  fiery  Alp," — that  is,  mountain: 
except  when  a  common  noun  is  understood;  as,  The  [river]  Hudson, 
— The  [ship]  Amity,— The  treacherous  [man]  Judas. 

OBS.  2. — A  common  noun  with  the  definite  article  prefixed  to  it, 
sometimes  becomes  proper ;  as,  The  Park, — The  Strand. 

OBS.  3. — The  coffimon  name  of  a  thing  or  quality  personified  often 
becomes  proper;  as,  "  'My  power,'  said  Reason,  'is  to  advise,  not  to 
compel.  '"—Johnson. 

Modifications. 

Nouns  have  modifications  of  four  kinds;  namely. 
persons,  numbers,  genders,  and  cases. 

y- 

Persons. 

Persons,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that  distin- 
guish the  speaker,  the  hearer,  and  the  person  or  thing 
merely  spoken  of. 

There  are  three  persons  :  the  first,  the  second,  and 
the  third. 

The  first  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  speaker 
or  writer ;  as,  "  I  Paul  have  written  it." 

The  second  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  hearer 
or  the  person  addressed  ;  as,  "  Robert,  who  did  this  ?  " 

The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person 
or  thing  merely  spoken  of ;  as,  "  James  loves  his  book" 

OBS.  1. — In  written  language,  the  first  person  denotes  the  writer  or 
author  ;  and  the  second,  the  reader  or  person  addressed :  except  when 
the  writer  describes  not  himself,  but  some  one  else,  as  uttering  to  »a- 
•ther  the  words  which  he  records, 


62  ETYMOLOGY. 

OBS.  2.  —The  speaker  seldom  refers  to  himself  by  name  as  the  speaker  . 
consequently,  nmins  are  rarely  used  in  the  first  person  .  and  when  they 
are,  a  pronoun  is  usually  prefixed  to  them.  Hence  some  grammarians 
deny  the  first  person  to  nouns  altogether. 


3.—  When  a  speaker  or  writer  does  not  choose  to  declare  himselt 
in  the  first  person,  or  to  address  his  hearer  or  reader  in  the  second  ',  he 
speaks  of  both  or  either  in  the  third.  Thus  Moses  relates  what  Moses 
did,  and  Caesar  records  the  achievements  of  C&sar.  So  Judah  humbly 
beseeches  Joseph  :  "  Let  thy  seroant  abide  in  stead  of  the  lad  a  bond- 
man to  my  lord.  "  —  Gen.  xliv.  ,  33.  And  Abraham  reverently  intercedes 
with  God  :  "  Oh  !  let  not  the  Lord  be  angry,  and  I  will  speak."—  Gen. 
xviii.,  30 

OB&  4.—  When  inanimate  things  are  spoken  to,  they  are  personified  ; 
and  their  names  are  put  in  the  second  person,  because  by  the  figure  the 
objects  are  supposed  to  be  capable  of  hearing. 


Numbers. 

Numbers,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that  dis- 
tinguish unity  and  plurality. 

ThertTare  two  numbers ;  the  singular  and  the  plural. 

The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but 
one;  as,  "The  boy  learns." 

The  plural  number  is  that  which  denotes  more  than 
one ;  as,  "  The  boys  learn." 

The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed  by  add- 
ing s  or  es  to  the  singular :  as,  book,  books  y  box,  boxes. 


Rules  for  forming  the  Ylural. 

GENERAL. 

I. — When  the  singular  ends  in  a  sound  which  will  unite  with  that  of 
*»  the  plural  is  generally  formed  by  adding  s  only,  and  the  number  of 
syllables  is  not  increased  :  as,  pen,  pens  ;  grape^  grapes. ' 

13. — But  when  the  sound  of  s  cannot  be  united  with  that  of  the  primi- 
tive word,  the  plural  adds  *  to  final  e,  and  es  to  other  terminations,  and. 
form^a  separate  sellable  -.  as,  pagey  pages  ; 


•  \ 

NOUNS.  63 

SPECIAL. 

I. — Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  add  (&,  but  do  not 
increase  the  number  of  syllables :  as,  hero,  heroes ;  potato,  potatoes ; 
mosquito,  mosquitoes.  The  exceptions  to  this  rule  appear  to  be  in  such 
nouns  as  are  not  fully  Anglicised ;  as,  cantos,  juntos,  solos,  etc.  Othef 
nouns  in  o  add  s  only :  as,  folio,  folios ;  bamboo,  bamboos. 

II. — Common  nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  | 
into  i,  and  add  es,  without  increase  of  syllables :  as,  fly,  flies  ;  duty,  duties 
Other  nchins  in  y  add  s  only :  as,  day,  days ;  valley,  valleys.  So  like- 
wise proper  names  in  y  are  sometimes  varied ;  as,  Henry,  the  Henrys. 

III. — The  following  nouns  in  /,  change  /  into  v,  and  add  es,  for  the 
plural:  sheaf,  leaf,  loaf,  beef,  thief,  calf,  half,  elf,  slielf,  self,  wolf, 
wharf;  as,  sheaves,  leaves,  etc.  Life,  lives  ;  knife,  knives  ;  wife,  wives  ; 
are  similar.  Staff  makes  staves,  though  the  compounds  of  staff  are 
regular ;  as,  flctgstqfl,  flagstaffs.  The  greater  number  of  nouns  in  /  and 
/«?,  are  regular ;  as,  fifes,  strifes,  chiefs,  griefs,  gulfs,  etc. 

IV. — The  following  are  still  more  irregular :  man,  men;  woman,  women; 
child,  children ;  brother,  brethren  [or  brothers]  ;  foot,  feet ;  ox,  oxen ; 
tooth,  teeth ;  goose,  geese ;  louse,  lice  ;  mouse,  mice ;  die,  dice  ;  penny, 
pence.  Dies-  stamps,  and  pennies-  coins,  are  regular. 

V. — Many  foreign  nouns  retain  their  original  plural:  as,  arcanum, 
arcana  ;  datum,  data  ;  erratum,  errata  ;  effluvium,  effluvia  ;  medium, 
media  [or  mediums'] ;  minutia,  minutim ;  stratum,  strata ;  stamen, 
st'tmina  ;  genus,  genera;  genius,  genii  [geniuses,  for  men  of  wit]/ 
magus,  magi ;  radius,  radii ;  appendix,  appendices  [or  appendixes] ; 
calx,  calces ;  index,  indices  [or  indexes]  ;  vortex,  vortices ;  axis,  axes ; 
basis,  bases;  crisis,  crises;  thesis,  theses;  antithesis,  antitheses;  diure- 
sis, dicereses  ;  ellipsis,  ellipses;  emphasis,  emphases;  hypothesis,  hypoth- 
eses; metamorphosis,  metamorpJioses  ;  automaton,  automata;  criterion, 
cnteria  [or  criterion*}  ;  phenomenon,  phenomena ;  cherub,  cherubim ; 
seraph,  seraphim  ;  beau,  beaux  [or  beans'], 

VI. — When  a  title  is  prefixed  to  a  proper  name  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of 
compound,  the  name,  and  not  the  title,  is  varied  to  form  the  plural ; 
as,  The  Miss  Howards, — The  two  Mr.  Clarks.  But  a  title  not  regarded 
as  a  part  of  one  compound  name,  must  be  made  plural,  if  it  refer  to 
more  than  one ;  as,  Messrs.  Lambert  and  Son, — The  Lords  Calthorpe 
and  Erskine, — The  Lords  Bishops  of  Durham  and  St.  David's, — The 
Lords  Commissioners  of  Justiciary. 

VII. — Compounds  in  which  the  principal  word  is  put  first,  vary  the 
principal  word  to  form  the  plural,  and  the  adjunct  to  form  the  posses- 
sive case:  as,  Sing,  father-in-law,  Flur.  fathers-in-law,  Poss.  faiher-in- 
laitfs; — Sing,  court-martial,  Plur.  courts-martial,  Poss.  c&urt~martia?8. 
The  possessive  plural  of  such  nouns  is  never  used. 


54  ETYMOLOGY. 

VIII. — Compounds  ending  \nful,  and  all  those  in  which  the  principal 
word  is  put  last,  form  the  plural  in  the  same  manner  as  other  nouns ; 
as,  Jiandfuls,  spoonfuls,  mouthful*,  feUow-servants,  man-servants,  out- 
pourings, ingatherings,  downsitUngs. 

IX. — Proper  names  of  individuals,  strictly  used  as  such,  have  no  plural ; 
but  when  several  persons  of  the  same  name  are  spoken  of,  the  noun 
becomes  in  some  degree  common,  and  admits  the  plural  form  and  an 
article ;  as,  The  Stuarts,  —The  Caesars.  So  likewise  when  such  nouns 
are  used  to  denote  character ;  as,  "  The  Aristotles,  the  TuUys,  and  the 
Livys." 


OBS.  1. — Some  nouns  (from  the  nature  of  the  things  meant)  have  no 
plural ;  as,  gold,  pride,  meekness. 

OBS.  2. — Some  nouns  have  no  singular ;  as,  ides,  measles,  tidings, 
victuals,  scissors,  tongs,  vesper*,  literati. 

OBS.  3. — The  proper  names  of  nations  and  societies  are  generally 
plural ;  and,  except  in  a  direct  address,  they  are  usually  construed  with 
the  definite  article  ;  as,  The  Greeks, — T7ie  Jesuits. 

OBS.  4. — Some  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers;  as,  sheep,  deer, 
vermin,  swine,  hose,  means,  odds,  news,  species,  series,  apparatus.  The 
following  are  sometimes  construed  as  singular,  but  more  frequently  and 
more  properly,  as  plural :  alms,  amends,  pains,  riches,  ethics,  mathe- 
matics, metaphysics,  optics,  politics,  pneumatics,  and  other  similar  names 
of  sciences.  Bettmos  and  gattows  are  properly  alike  in  both  numbers 
(as,  "Let  a  gattows  be  made."— Esther  v.,  14.  "The  bettows  are 
burned." — Jer.  vi.,  29);  but  they  have  a  regular  plural  in  vulgar  use. 
Bolus,  fungus,  isthmus,  prospectus,  and  rebus,  admit  the  regular  plural. 

OBS.  5. — Nouns  of  multitude,  when  taken  collectively,  generally  ad- 
mit the  plural  form ;  as,  meeting,  meetings  :  but  when  taken  distribu- 
tively,  they  may  have  a  plural  signification  without  the  form ;  as,  "  The 
jury  were  convinced." 

OES.  6. — When  other  parts  of  speech  become  nouns,  they  either  want 
the  plural,  or  form  it  regularly,  like  common  nouns  of  the  same  end- 
ings ;  as,  "His  affairs  went  on  at  sixes  and  sevens." — Arbuthnot.  "Some 
mathematicians  have  proposed  to  compute  by  twos ;  others,  by  fairs ; 
others,  by  twelves." — ChurchiU.  "Three  fourths,  nine  tenths." — Id. 
4 '  Time's  takings  and  leavings.  "—Barton .  ' '  The  yeas  and  nays. " — News- 
paper. "The  ays  and  noes."— Ibid.  "The  ins  and  the  outs."— Ibid. 
"His  ands  and  his  ors."—Mott.  "One  of  the  buts."~Pov>le.  "In 
raising  the  mirth  of  &tupid*."—Stede+ 


NOUNS.  55 

Genders. 

Genders,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that  distin- 
guish objects  in  regard  to  sex. 

There  are  three  genders:  the  masculine,  the  femi- 
nine, and  the  neuter. 

The  masculine  gender  is  that  which  denotes 
persons  or  animals  of  the  male  kind ;  as,  man,  father^ 
king. 

The  feminine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  per- 
sons or  animals  of  the  female  kind ;  as,  woman,  mother, 
queen. 

The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things 
that  are  neither  male  nor  female  ;  as,  pen,  ink,  paper. 

Some  nouns  may  be  applied  to  either  sex  ;  as,  cousin,  friend, 
neighbor,  parent,  person,  servant.  Such  nouns  are  usually  said 
to  be  of  the  common  gender.  Sometimes  the  sex  can  be  de- 
termined by  the  context. 

OBS. — Gender  is  to  be  distinguished  from  sex,  the  latter  being  a  dis- 
tinction of  animals ;  the  former  of  words,  in  regard  to  the  sex  which 
they  denote.  There  are  obviously  four  classes  of  nouns  in  this  regard  : 
1.  The  names  of  males ;  2.  The  names  of  females ;  3.  Names  common  to 
both ;  and  4.  Names  of  things  without  sex. — EDITOR. 

The  sexes  are  distinguished  in  three  ways : 

I.  By  the  use  of  different  names :  as,  bachelor,   maid ;    boy,   girl ; 
brother,  sister ;  buck,  doe ;  buU,  cow ;   cock,  hen;  drake,  duck;   ecrl, 
countess;  fattier,  mother;  friar,  nun;  gander,  goose;  hart,  roe;  horxe, 
mare;    husband,   wife;    king,   queen;   lad,   lass;   lord,   lady;    man, 
woman;  master,  mistress ;  milter,  spawner ;  nephew,  niece;  ram,  ewe ; 
sloven,  slut;  son,  daughter;  stag,  hind;   steer,  heifer;  unc.le,  aunt , 
wizard,  witch. 

II.  By  the  use  of  different  terminations :  as,  abbot,  abbess  ;  adminis- 
trator,   administratrix;    adulterer,    adulteress;     bridegroom,    bride; 
caterer,  cateress  ;  duke,  duchess  ;  emperor,  emperess  or  empress  ;  execu- 
tor, executrix;  governor,  governess ;  hero,  heroine;  landgrave,  landgra- 
vine; margrave,  margravine;  marquis,  marchioness;  sorcerer,  sorcer- 
ess; sultan,  sultaness  or  sultana ;  testator,  testatrix;  tutor,  tutor  en  or 
tutress;  widower \  widow. 


*56  ETYMOLOGY. 

The  following  noung  become  feminine  by  merely  adding  ess :  baron, 
deacon,  heir,  host,  jew,  lion,  mayor,  patron,  peer,  poet,  priest,  prior, 
prophet,  shepherd,  viscount. 

The  following  nouns  become  feminine  by  rejecting  the  last  vowel  and 
adding  ess :  actor,  ambassador,  arbiter,  benefactor,  chanter,  conductor, 
doctor,  elector,  enchanter,  founder,  hunter,  iddator,  inventor^  prmoe, 
protector,  songster,  spectator,  suitor,  tiger,  traitor,  votary.  &/-£)(/ 

HE.  By  prefixing  an  attribute  of  distinction :  as,  cock-sparrow,  hen- 
tparrow;  man-servant,  maid-servant;  he-  goat,  she-goat ;  male  relations, 
female  relations. 

OBS.  1.— The  names  of  things  without  life,  used  literally,  are  always 
of  the  neuter  gender.  But  inanimate  objects  are  often  represented 
figuratively  as  having  sex.  Things  remarkable  for  power,  greatness, 
or  sublimity,  are  spoken  of  as  masculine  ;  as,  the  sun,  time,  death,  sleep, 
fear,  anger,  winter,  war.  Things  beautiful,  amiable,  or  prolific,  are 
spoken  of  as  feminine ;  as,  the  moon,  earth,  nature,  fortune,  knowledge, 
hope,  spring,  peace. 

OBS.  2. — Nouns  of  multitude,  when  they  convey  the  idea  of  unity, 
or  take  the  plural  form,  are  of  the  neuter  gender ;  but  when  they  con- 
vey the  idea  of  plurality  without  the  form,  they  follow  the  gender  of 
the  individuals  that  compose  the  assemblage. 

OBS.  3. — Creatures  whose  sex  is  unknown,  or  unnecessary  to  be  re- 
garded, are  generally  spoken  of  as  neuter;  as,  "He  fired  at  the  deer, 
and  wounded  it."— "  If  a  man  shall  steal  an  ox  or  a  sheep,  and  kill  it  or 
sell  it,"  etc.— Exodus  xxii.,  1. 

Cases. 

Cases ,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that  distinguish 
the  relations  of  nouns  and  pronouns  to  other  words. 

There  are  three  cases:  the  nominative,  the  pos- 
sessive, and  the  objective. 

The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  which  usually  denotes  the  subject  of  a 
finite  verb  :  as,  "  The  loy  runs ;  /run." 

OBS. — A.  finite  verb  is  a  verb  that  may  be  used  as  the  predicate  verb 
in  any  simple  proposition  :  as,  "  Fire  burns  ;  "  "  Water  flows."  In  the 
sentence,  u  He  seemed  to  listeii,"  there  are  two  verbs :  seemed,  a  finite 
verb,  and  to  listen,  which  is  not  a  finite  verb,  because  it  could  not  form 
the  predicate  of  any  proposition. 


The  possessive  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun 
or  pronoun,  which  usually  denotes  the  relation  of  property : 
as,  "  The  boy's  hat ;  my  hat." 

OBS.  1.-  The  possessive  case  of  nouns  is  formed,  in  the  singular  num- 
ber, by  adding  to  the  nominative  s  preceded  by  an  apostrophe ;  and,  i:i 
the  plural,  when  the  nominative  ends  in  s,  by  adding  an  apostrophe 
only :  as,  singular,  boy's  ;  plural,  boys'  ; — sounded  alike,  but  written 
differently. 

OBS.  2. — Plural  nouns  that  do  not  end  in  8,  usually  form  the  posses- 
sive case  in  the  same  manner  as  the  singular  ;  as,  man's,  men's. 

OBS.  3. — The  apostrophe  and  s  are  sometimes  added  to  mere  charac- 
ters, to  denote  plurality,  and  not  the  possessive  case  ;  as,  Two  a'*— three 
b's — four  9's.  Inline  following  example,  they  are  used  to  give  the  sound 
of  a  verbal  termination  to  words  that  are  not  properly  verbs  :  "When  a 
man  in  a  soliloquy  reasons  with  himself,  and  pro's  and  con's,  and  weighs 
all  his  designs,"  etc. — Congreve. 

The  objective  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun 
or  pronoun,  which  usually  denotes  the  object  of  a  verb, 
participle,  or  preposition :  as,  "  I  know  the  ~boy  •  he  knows 


OBS. — There  are  sometimes  used  in  connection  with  a  sentence,  words 
that  form  no  part  of  its  structure.  Such  words  are  said  to  be  indepen- 
dent. A  noun  or  a  pronoun  may  be  independent  in  various  ways : 

1.  The  name  of  a  person  or  thing  addressed  ;  as  "  John,  when  will 
you  go  ?  "— "  O  ye  of  little  faith  !  " 

2.  The  name  of  a  person  or  thing  which  is  the  subject  of  an  exclama- 
tion ;  as,  "Alas,  poor  Yorick ! '" 

3.  An   expletive  word,  used  merely  to  make   the  subject  or  object 
emphatic  ;  as,  "  The  Spring — she  is  a  blessed  thing  !  " — "  Gad,  a  troop 
shall  overcome  him." 

Such  nouns  and  pronouns,  although  independent  in  state,  require  the 
form  of  the  nominative  case,  and  therefore,  in  parsing,  should  be  said 
to  be  in  that  case.  Interjections  are  always  independent. 

The  Declension  of  Nouns. 

The  declension  of  a  noun  is  a  regular  arrangement 
of  its  numbers  and  cases.  Thus : — 


58 


Sing.  Nom. 
Poss. 
Ob}. 


Sing 


Poss. 
Obj. 


Sing.  Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


Sing.  Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


ETYMOiOGYo 

EXAMPLE  I. — FRIEND. 

friend,  Plur.  Nom.  friends, 

friend's,  Poss.  friends', 

friend ;  Obj.  friends. 

EXAMPLE  IL — MAN. 

man,  Plur.  Nom.  men, 

man's,  Poss.  men's, 

man ;  Obj.  men. 

EXAMPLE  HL — Fox. 

fox,  Plur.  Nom.  foxes, 

fox's,  .  Poss.  foxes', 

fox ;  Obj.  foxes. 

EXAMPLE  IV. — FLY. 

fly,  Plur.  Nom.  flies, 

fly's,  Po.ss.  flies', 

fly ;  Obj.  flies. 


V.— ANALYSIS,  PARSING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION. 

Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into  the  parts 
which  compose  it. 

OBS. — The  difference  between  analysis  and  parsing  is  this :  in  the 
former,  only  those  distinctions  are  considered  which  are  common  to  all 
languages,  since  every  sentence  must  consist  of  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate and  the  vords  subordinate  to  these  ;  but  in  parsing  those  distinc- 
tions and  peculiarities  are  noted  which  characterize  different  languages, 
and  give  rise  to  particular  rules. 

A  simple  sentence  is  one  that  contains  only  one 
proposition  ;  as,  "  Fire  burns." — "  The  truth  will  prevail." 

A  phrase  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more  words  express- 
ing some  relation  of  ideas,  but  no  entire  proposition  ;  as,  "Of 
A  good  disposition." — "  By  the  means  appointed." 


PARSING,    AND  CONSTRUCTION.         59 


The  subject  of  a  sentence  generally  consists  of  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun,  with  or  without  adjuncts  ;  the  predicate  of  a  sen- 
tence consists  of  a  verb,  with  or  without  adjuncts. 

Words  added  directly  to  either  of  the  principal  parts  are  sometimes 
called  primary  adjuncts  ;  as,  "  Good  books  always  deserve  a  careful 
perusal."  Words  added  to  other  adjuncts  are  called  secondary 
adjuncts;  as,  "Suddenly  acquired  wealth  very  rarely  brings  happi- 


Adjuncts  are  divided,  with  respect  to  their  office,  into 
three  classes;  namely,  adjective,  adverbial,  and  ex- 
planatory. 

An  adjective  adjunct  is  one  used  to  modify  or  limit  a 
noun  or  a  pfbnoun  ;  as,  "Both  those  bad  boys  deserve  severe 
punishment." 

An  adverbial  adjunct  is  one  used  like  an  adverb  ;  as, 
"  Remember  now  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth" 

An  explanatory  adjunct  is  one  used  to  explain  a  pre- 
ceding noun  or  pronoun  ;  as,  "  The  emperor  Napoleon  was 
banished." — "We,  the  people,  ordain  this  constitution." 

Nouns  may  be  modified  by  adjuncts  of  various  forms : — 

1.  An  article  or  an  adjective  ;  as,  "  The  diligent  scholar  improves." 

2.  A  noun  or  &  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case;  as,   "  William's  sister 
has  lost  her  book." 

3.  A  verb  used  as  an  adjective  ;  as,  "  The  desire  to  excel  is  laudable." 

4.  A  preposition  and  its  object,  used  together  as  an  adjective;  as,  "A 
man  of  integrity  obeys  the  dictates  of  conscience." 

5.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used   as  an   explanatory   adjunct;  as,   "His 
brother  Charles  is  idle." 

Verbs  may  be  modified  by  adverbial  adjuncts  of  various  forms  : — 

1.  An  adverb  ;  as,  "  The  sun  shines  brightly.'1'' 

2.  A  preposition  and  its  object,  used  together  as  an  adverb;  as,  "He 
c&mefrom  Boston." 

An  adjective,  participle,  noun,  or  pronoun,  used  in  the 
predicate  of  a  sentence,  but  relating  to  the  subject,  is  called 
an  attribute  ;  as,  "Gold  is  yellow."—"  The  sun  is  shining" 
•— "  Honesty  is  the  best  policy." 


66  ETYMOLOGY. 

OBS. — The  attribute,  when  it  is  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  is  in  the  same 
case  as  the  subject  to  which  it  refers;  as,  "It  is/,  be  not  afraid."— 
"  Who  is  she  ? "— "  They  believed  it  to  be  me." 

In  analyzing  a  simple  sentence,  point  out : — 

1.  The  subject. 

2.  The  predicate. 

3.  The  subject  noun  and  its  adjuncts. 

4.  The  predicate  verb  and  its  adverbial  adjuncts. 
g    (  The  object  and  its  adjuncts,  or 

1  The  attribute  and  its  adjuncts. 


Exercises  in  Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Praxis  II.  —  Etymological. 

In  tJie  Second  Praxis,  it  i-s  required  of  the  pupil  :  to  classify  and  ana- 
lyze the  sentence  as  in  the  preceding  praxis  ;  to  point  out,  in  addition, 
the  adjuncts  in  each  of  the  principal  parts,  and  distinguish  their  classes  / 
and  to  parse  the  sentence  by  distinguishing  the  different  parts  of  speech, 
and  the  classes  and  modifications  of  the  nouns,  distinguishing  also  the 
article  as  definite  or  indefinite.  Thus  :  — 


1.  —  ANALYZED  AND  PARSED. 
"The  Athenians  carefully  observed  Solon's  wise  laws." 

ANALYSIS.  —  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  the  Athenians  ;  the 
predicate  is  carefully  observed  Solon's  wise  laws.  The  subject  noun  is  Athenians, 
limited  by  the  adjunct  the  ;  the  predicate  verb  is  observed,  and  its  adjuncts  are  the  ad- 
verb carefully  and  the  object  laws  ;  the  adjuncts  of  the  object  are  Solon's  and  wite. 

PARSING.  —  The  is  the  definite  article,  because  it  limits  the  noun  Athenians. 

Athenians  is  a  proper  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  particular  people  ;  of  the  third 
person,  because  they  are  spoken  of  ;  of  the  plural  number,  because  the  noun  denotee 
more  than  one  ;  of  the  common  gender,  because  it  includes  both  sexes  ;  and  in  the  nomi- 
native case,  because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  observed. 

Carefully  is  an  adverb,  because  it  is  added  to  the  verb  observed,  and  expresses 


Observed  is  a  verb,  because  it  expresses  action. 

Solon's  is  a  proper  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  particular  individual ;  it  is  of  the 
third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender,  and  in  the  possessive  case,  because  it 
indicates  the  possession  of  Imc*. 

Wi»e  is  an  adjective,  because  it  is  added  to  the  noun  laws. 

Laws  is  a  common  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  class  of  things ;  of  the  third  per- 
Ron,  plural  number,  neuter  gender,  and  in  the  objective  case,  because  it  fc  the  object  of 
tiu  terb  0H*rwd. 


ANALYSIS,    PARSING,    AND    CONSTRUCTION.          61 

Integrity  inspires  confidence.  Perseverance  overcomes  all  obstacles. 
Generosity  always  makes  friends.  Pleasure's  call  always  wins  an  eager 
attention.  Avarice  rapidly  extinguishes  every  generous  sentiment. 
The  study  of  astronomy  greatly  elevates  the  mind.  The  enterprising 
merchant  has  just  returned  from  Europe.  Every  person  highly  praised 
William's  noble  conduct.  Riotous  indulgence  very  soon  destroys  the 
bodily  vigor.  Where  did  your  kind  father  purchase  that  interesting 
book  ?  Charles's  resignation  filled  all  Europe  with  astonishment.  In- 
dulgence in  sloth  can  never  lead  to  prosperity.  The  beautiful  scenes 
•of  nature  ever  excite  the  admiration  of  mankind. 


EXAMPLE  2. — ANALYZED. 
Filial  ingratitude  is  a  shameful  crime. 

A  simple  declarative  sentence. 

Subject,  filial  ingratitude ;  predicate,  is  a  shameful  crime. 
Subject  noun,  ingratitude  ;  adjunct,  filial. 

Predicate  verb,  is ;  adjunct,  the  attribute  crime ;  adjuncts  of  the  attribute,  a  and 
shameful. 

Honesty  is  the  best  policy.  Liberty  is  a  great  blessing.  Rose  leaves 
are  very  fragrant.  William  soon  became  a  very  good  scholar.  The 
contract  was  pronounced  fraudulent.  Cool  blows  the  summer  breeze. 
The  sky  suddenly  grew  black.  The  soul  of  the  diligent  shall  be  made 
fat.  The  memory  of  mischief  is  no  desirable  fame.  He  was  born  a 
lord.  Washington  was  twice  elected  President.  Hovr  wonderful  is 
sleep !  When  was  Victoria  crowned  queen  of  England  ?  Columbus 
was  undoubtedly  an  extraordinary  man.  The  distant  hills  look  blue. 
The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 


Construction  and  Composition. 

Construction  is  the  combination  of  words  into  sen- 
tences. 

Composition  is  the  combination  of  sentences  to  ex- 
press connected  thought. 

OBS. — In  a  composition  the  sentences  are  related  to  each  other  by  the 
thoughts  which  they  express.  Without  this  connection,  or  logical  rela- 
tion, sentences  do  not  form  a  composition.  Thus  the  sentences  in  the 
preceding  exercise  for  analysis  do  not  form  a  composition,  because  the 
thoughts  which  they  express  are  not  logically  related  to  one  another, 


62  ETYMOLOGY. 

Exercises. 
Construct  the  following:— 

A  sentence  with  a  noun,  a  verb,  and  adjuncts  of  each. 

A  sentence  with  a  subject  noun,  a  predicate  verb,  and  an  object  with  its 
adjuncts. 

A  sentence  with  a  subject  pronoun,  a  predicate  verb,  and  an  attribute 
noun,  with  or  without  adjuncts. 

A  sentence  with  an  adjective  attribute,  with  or  without  adjuncts. 

Write  three  sentences  of  any  of  these  kinds  describing  a  tree. 

Write  four  sentence*  describing  a  fish. 

Write  five  sentences  about  a  clock. 

Write  several  sentences  forming  a  short  composition  upon  a  horse. 

Cautions. 

1.  Do  not  use  the  same  word  too  often,  nor  express  the 
same  thought  more  than  once. 

2.  Avoid  all  slang  expressions. 

3.  Do  not  use  too  many  short  sentences  in  succession.    Join 
some  of  them  together  so  as  to  make  the  style  more  pleasing. 

4.  Be  careful  to  spell  all  the  words  correctly,  to  use  capitals 
according  to  the  rules,  and  to  place  a  period  at  the  end  of 
each  sentence.     When  sentences  are  united,  they  should  be 
separated  by  a  comma  (,).     Phrases  should  also,  usually,  be 
set  off  by  a  comma. 

Criticise  the  following  : — 

The  Owl.       / 

The  owl  is  a  curious  kind  of  bird.  It  has  curious  large 
eyes.'i  It  cannot  see  in  the  Light,  it  hides  away  in  the  day- 
time in  dark  places,  the  sun  dazzles  his  eyes.  He  comes  out 
at  night  and  goes  flying  around  looking  after  his  prey.  It 
catches  birds  and  moles  and  mice  and  other  animals  it  also 
catches  insects.  There  are  a  good  many  kinds  of  owls,  such 
as  the  Eagle  owl,  the  Cat  owl  the  Screech  owl  and  others. 
Did  you  ever  hear  an  Owl  hoot  in  the  night  ?  It  makes  a  Kind 
of  mournful  sound,  i  was  awfully  scared  one  night  hearing  a 
screech  owl  in  the  woods.  I  couldn't  think  what  it  was,  Owlg 
are  very  funny  creatures, 


rES. 


ADJECTIVES:  /  63 

Faults. — The  ideas  are  not  well  arranged.  Certain  words,  curious, 
it,  etc. ,  are  repeated  in  close  succession.  There  are  too  many  short  sen- 
tences coming  together,  making  the  style  unpleasant.  There  are  repeti- 
tions of  the  same  thought,  in  the  first  and  last  sentences  ;  and  there  are 
mistakes  in  capitals  and  punctuation.  Some  of  the  words  are  ill-chosen, 
and  there  are  slang  expressions. 

In  the  following  these  faults  are  corrected. 

The  Owl. 

The  owl  is  a  curious  bird.  It  has  large  eyes  like  those  of  a 
cat  ;  and  during  the  day,  it  hides  away  in  dark  places,  be- 
cause it  is  not  able  to  bear  the  dazzling  light  of  the  sun.  At 
night  it  flies  about,  seeking  its  prey,  which  consists  of  birds, 
mice,  moles,  insects,  etc.  There  are  several  kinds  of  owls,  as 
the  eagle  owl,  the  screech  owl,  and  the  cat  owl.  Some  of 
these  birds  are  quite  large.  The  hooting  of  an  owl  at  night 
is  a  very  dismal  sound  ;  and  once,  when  I  heard  a  screech  owl 
in  the  woods,  I  was  really  frightened,  for  I  did  not  know  what 
it  was.  Did  you  ever  hear  an  owl  hoot  ?  -  - 

Write  a  similar  composition  on  each  of  the  following  subject*. 

The  Horse)  The  Cow)  The  Eagle.  The  Camel.  The  Elephant. 
The  Lion.  The  Ostrich.  Ths  Canary  Bird.  The  Mocking  Bird.  The 
Crow. 


VI.-ADJECTIVES. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun, 
and  generally  expresses  quality. 

Classes. 

Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  six  classes;  namely, 
common,  proper,  numeral,  pronominal,  pan 
tfcipial,  and  compound. 

A  common  adjective  is  any  ordinary  epithet,  or 
adjective  denoting  quality  or  situation;  as,  Good,  bad, 
peaceful,  warlike — eastern,  western,  outer,  inner. 


64  ETYMOLOGY. 

A  proper  adjective  is  one  that  is  formed  from  a 
proper  name  ;  as,  American,  English,  Platonic. 

A  numeral  adjective  is  one  that  expresses  a  defi- 
nite number  ;  as,  One,  two,  three,  four,  Jive,  six,  etc. 

OBS. — Numeral  adjectives  are  of  three  kinds: — 

1.  Cardinal;  as,  One,  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  seven,  eight,  nine, 
ten,  eleven,  twelve,  thirteen,  fourteen,  fifteen,  etc. 

2.  Ordinal;  as,   First,   second,   third,   fourth,   fifth,   sixth,   seventh, 
eighth,  ninth,  tenth,  eleventh,  twelfth,  thirteenth,  etc. 

3.  Multiplicative;  as,  Single  or  alone,  double  or  twofold,  triple  of 
threefold,  quadruple  or  fourfold,  quintuple  or  fivefold,  sextuple  or  six- 
fold, septuple  or  sevenfold,  octuple  or  eightfold,  etc. 

A  pronominal  adjective  is  a  definitive  word  which 
may  either  accompany  its  noun,  or  represent  it  understood ; 
as,  "All  [men]  join  to  guard  what  each  [man]  desires  to 
gain." 

OBS.  1. — The  following  are  the  principal  pronominal  adjectives:  AU, 
any,  both,  certain,  divers,  each,  either,  else,  enough,  every,  few,  former, 
first,  latter,  last,  little,  less,  least,  much,  many,  more,  mo*t^  neither,  no 
or  none,  one,  only,  other,  own,  same,  several,  some,  such,  this,  that,  these, 
those,  which,  what. 

OBS.  2. — A  pronominal  adjective,  as  the  name  implies,  partakes  of 
the  nature  of  a  pronoun,  and  may  be  considered  as  representing  the 
noun,  when  not  expressed,  and  therefore  as  having  the  modifications  of 
a  noun.  Sometimes,  however,  the  noun  may  be  supplied. 

A  participial  adjective  is  one  that  has  the  form 
of  a  participle,  but  differs  from  it  by  rejecting  the  idea  of 
time  ;  as,  An  amusimg  story. 

OBS. — A  participial  adjective  is  a  participle  used  as  an  adjective.  As 
a  participle  it  conveys  the  idea  of  time  ;  as,  "The  sun  rising,  darkness 
is  dispelled."  That  is,  When  the  sun  rises.  But  as  an  adjective  it  ex- 
presses quality  or  condition ;  as,  "The  rising  sun  dispels  the  darkness." 

A  compound  adjective  is  one  that  consists  of  two 
or  more  words  joined  together  5  as,  Hut-brown,  laughter^ 
loving,  four-footed. 


ADJECTIVES.  65 


Exercise. 

Classify  the  adjectives  in  the  following,  and  state  to  what  sub-dass  each 
of  the  numeral  adjectives  belongs  : — 

Brave  soldiers.  Innocent  children.  Beautiful  pictures.  The  French 
army.  The  Copernican  system.  A  charming  prospect.  A  loving  son. 
A  detested  crime.  The  lowing  herd.  The  triple  alliance.  Fifty^cents. 
Wholesome  food.  Luscious  fruit.  An  inner  apartment.  Outer1  dark- 
ness. A  coal-black  horse.  The  sixteenth  century.  An  old-fashioned 
clock.  Many  persons.  Much  difficulty.  A  Grecian  fable.  The  Pla- 
tonic system.  A  fresh-looking  maid.  Double  length.  A  beloved 
child.  Torturing  anxiety.  A  sharp-witted  boy. 


^     Modifications. 

Adjectives  have,  commonly,  no  modifications  but  the 
forms  of  comparison. 

OBS. — This  and  that  are  modified  so  as  to  agree  with  their  nouns  in 
number,  thus:  this,  these;  that,  those. 

Comparison  is  a  variation  of  the  adjective,  to  express 
quality  in  different  degrees ;  as,  hardy  harder,  hardest. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison  :  the  positive, 
the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

The  positive  degree  is  that  which  is  expressed  by 

the  adjective  in  its  simple  form  ;  as,  hard,  soft,  good. 

The  comparative  degree  is  that  which  exceeds  the 
positive  ;  as,  harder,  softer,  better. 

The  superlative  degree  is  that  which  is  not  ex- 
ceeded ;  as,  hardest,  softest,  best. 

Those  adjectives  whose  signification  does  not  admit  of 
different  degrees,  cannot  be  compared ;  as,  two,  second,  all, 
total,  immortal,  infinite. 

Those  adjectives  which  may  be  varied  in  sense,  but  not 
in  form,  are  compared  by  means  of  adverbs ;  as,  skillful, 
more  skillful,  most  skillful — skillful,  less  skillful,  least 

skillful 

5 


66  ETYMOLOGY. 

OBB. — Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable,  except  dissyllables  ending 
in  y  or  mute  e,  rarely  admit  a  change  of  termination,  but  are  rather 
compared  by  means  of  the  adverbs.  Thus  we  say,  virtuous,  more  virtu* 
ous,  most  virtuous  ;  but  not  virtuous,  virtuouser,  virtuousest. 

Regular  Comparison, 

Adjectives  are  regularly  compared,  when  the  comparative 
degree  is  expressed  by  adding  er,  and  the  superlative,  by  add- 
ing est  to  them  ;  as, 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

great, 

greater, 

greatest. 

wide, 

wider, 

widest. 

hot, 

hotter, 

hottest. 

The  regular  method  of  comparison  is  chiefly  applicable  to 
monosyllables,  and  to  dissyllables  ending  in  y  or  mute  e. 

Comparison  by  Adverbs. 

The  different  degrees  of  a  quality  may  also  be  expressed, 
with  precisely  the  same  import,  by  prefixing  to  the  adjective 
the  adverbs  more  and  most :  as,  wise,  more  wise,  most  wise  ; 
famous,  more  famous,  most  famous  ;  amiable,  more  amiable, 
most  amiable. 

The  degrees  of  diminution  are  expressed,  in  like  manner, 
by  the  adverbs  less  and  least :  as,  wise,  less  wise,  least  wise ; 
famous,  less  famous,  least  famous  ;  amiable,  less  amiable,  least 
amiable. 

OBS. — The  prefixing  of  an  adverb  can  hardly  be  called  a  variation  ol 
the  adjective :  the  words  may  with  more  propriety  be  taken  separately, 
the  degree  being  ascribed  to  the  adverb,  or  to  both  words ;  for  both  are 
varied  in  sense  by  the  inflection  of  the  former. 

Irregular  Comparison. 

The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly:  good, 
better,  best;  bad  or  ill,  worse,  worst;  littlet  less,  least;  much, 
more,  most;  many,  more,  most. 


ADJECTIVES.  67 

Most  adjectives  that  denote  place  or  situation,  not  only  form  the  super- 
lative irregularly,  but  are  also  either  redundant  or  defective  in  compari- 
son. Thus: — 

I. — The  following  nine  have  more  than  one  superlative  :  far,  farther, 
farthest,  farmost  or  farthermost ;  near,  nearer,  nearest  or  next ;  fore, 
former,  foremost  or  first;  hind,  Jiinder,  hindmost  or  hinder  most ;  in, 
inner,  inmost  or  innermost ;  out,  outer  or  utter,  outmost  or  utmost,  out- 
ermost or  uttermost ;  up,  upper,  upmost  or  uppermost ;  low,  lower,  low- 
est or  lowermost ;  late,  later  or  latter,  latest  or  last. 

II. — The  following  five  want  the  positive  :  [aft,  adv.]  after,  aftmost  or 
aftermost;  [forth,  adv.]  further,  furthest  or  furthermost;.  Jiither, 
hithermost;  nether,  nethermost;  under,  undermost. 

III. — The  following  want  the  comparative:  front,  frontmost ;  rear, 
rearmost ;  head,  headmost ;  end,  endnwst ;  top,  topmost ;  bottom,  bottom- 
most ;  mid  or  middle,  midst,  midmost  or  middlemost ;  north,  northmost ; 
south,  southmost;  northern,  northernmost;  southern,  southernmost; 
eastern,  easternmost ;  western,  westernmost. 

OBS.  1. — It  may  be  remarked  of  the  comparatives,  former  and  latter 
or  hinder,  upper  and  under  or  nether,  inner  and  outer  or  utter,  after  and 
hither ;  as  well  as  of  the  Latin  superior  and  infenor,  anterior  and  pos- 
terior, interior  and  exterior,  prior  and  ulterior,  senior  and  junior,  major 
and  minor ;  that  they  cannot,  like  other  comparatives,  be  construed 
with  the  conjunction  than,  introducing  the  latter  term  of  comparison ; 
for  we  never  say,  one  thing  is  former,  superior,  etc.,  than  another. 

OBS.  2. — Pronominal  adjectives,  when  their  nouns  are  expressed, 
simply  relate  to  them,  and  have  no  modifications :  except  this  and  that, 
which  form  the  plural  these  and  those  ;  much,  many  ;  and  a  few  others, 
which  are  compared. 


Exercise. 

Compare  such  of  the  following  adjectives  as  can  be  compared,  regularly, 
irregularly,  or  by  means  of  adverbs,  as  each  may  require : — 

Clear,  obscure,  certain,  full,  probable,  possible,  clever,  sagacious, 
weary,  hard,  awkward,  amiable,  new,  old,  general,  perfect,  able,  grace- 
ful, little,  much,  many,  virtuous,  bad,  rear,  middle,  low,  late,  after, 
universal,  distinct,  thoughtless,  willful,  cautious,  negligent,  discreet, 
inconsiderate,  unquestionable,  vague,  correct,  immortal 


68  ETYMOLOGY. 

VII.— PRONOUNS. 
A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

Classes. 

Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes ;  personal, 
relative,  and  interrogative. 

A  personal  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  shows  by  its 
form,  of  what  person  it  is. 

OBS. — That  is,  the  word  itself  shows  whether  it  is  of  the  first,  second, 
or  third  person. 

The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  five :  namely,  /,  of 
the  first  person  ;  tJwu,  of  the  second  person ;  he,  she,  and 
it,  of  the  third  person. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  also  five  :  namely, 
myself,  of  the  first  person  ;  thyself,  of  the  second  person  ; 
himself,  herself,  and  itself,  of  the  third  person. 

OBS. — The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  used  when  an  action 
reverts  upon  the  agent,  or  for  special  emphasis;  as,  "He  has  injured 
himself."—"  She  herself  was  to  blame." 

A  relative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  represents  an 
antecedent  word  or  phrase,  and  connects  different  clauses 
of  a  sentence. 

The  relative  pronouns  are  ivho,  which,  what,  and  that ; 
and  the  compounds,  ivhoever  or  whosoever,  whichever  or 
whichsoever,  whatever  or  whatsoever. 

What  is  a  kind  of  double  relative,  equivalent  to  that 
which  or  those  which  •  and  is  therefore  to  be  considered  as 
including  both  the  antecedent  and  the  relative. 

An  interrogative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  with  which 
a  question  is  asked. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  and  what; 
being  the  same  in  form  as  relatives. 


PRONOUNS.  69 

OBS.  1. —  Who  is  usually  applied  to  persons  only  ;  which,  though  for- 
merly applied  to  persons,  is  now  confined  to  animals  and  inanimate 
things;  what  (as  a  mere  pronoun)  is  applied  to  things  only;  that  is 
applied  indifferently  to  persons,  animals,  or  things. 

OBS.  2.— The  pronoun  what,  having  a  twofold  relation,  represents 
two  cases  at  the  same  time  ;  as,  "He  is  ashamed  of  what  he  has  done  ; " 
that  is,  of  that  [thing]  which  he  has  done.  It  is  usually  of  the  singular 
number,  though  sometimes  plural;  as,  "I  must  turn  to  the  faults,  or 
what  appear  such  to  me." — Byron. 

OBS.  3.—  What  is  sometimes  used  both  as  an  adjective  and  a  relative 
at  the  same  time,  and  is  placed  before  the  noun  which  it  represents ; 
as,  "  What  money  we  had  was  taken  away  ; "  that  is,  All  the  money  Unit 
we  had,  etc. — "  What  man  but  enters,  dies;"  that  is,  Any  man  who, 
etc.  The  compound  whatever  or  whatsoever  has  the  same  peculiarities 
of  construction  ;  a%  "We  will  certainly  do  whatsoever  thing  goeth  forth 
out  of  our  own  mouth." — Jer.  xliv. ,  17. 

OBS.  4. —  Who,  which,  and  what,  when  the  affix  ever  or  soever  is  added, 
have  an  unlimited  signification  ;  and,  as  some  general  term,  such  as  any 
person,  or  any  thing,  is  usually  employed  as  the  antecedent,  they  are  all 
commonly  followed  by  two  verbs ;  as,  "  Whoever  attends,  will  improve  ;  " 
that  is,  Any  person  who  attends,  will  improve.  In  analysis  and  parsing, 
supply  the  antecedent. 

OBS.  5. — The  word  as,  though  usually  a  conjunction  or  an  adverb, 
has  sometimes  the  construction  of  a  relative  pronoun;  as,  "The  Lord 
added  to  the  church  daily  such  [persons]  as  should  be  saved." — Acts 
ii.,  47. 

OBS.  6. —  Whether  was  formerly  used  as  an  interrogative  pronoun, 
referring  to  one  of  two  things ;  as,  "  Whether  is  greater,  the  gold  or  the 
temple  ?  "—Matt,  xxiii.,  17. 

OBS.  7. — Interrogative  pronouns  represent  their  nouns  understood, 
like  pronominal  adjectives;  as,  "What  [deed]  hast  thou  done  V" 
"  Which  of  these  books  will  you  have  ?  "  That  is,  Which  book,  etc. 

Modifications. 

Pronouns  have  the  same  modifications  as  nouns; 
namely,  Persons,  Numbers,  Genders,  and  Cases. 

OBS.  1.— In  the  personal  pronouns,  most  of  these  properties  are  indi- 
cated by  the  words  themselves ;  in  the  relative  pronoun,  it  is  necessary 
to  refer  to  the  antecedent  which  it  represents ;  and  in  the  interrogative, 


70  ETYMOLOGY. 

to  the  word,  usually  in  the  answer,  which  it  represents;  as,   "Who 
comes  here  ?     A  friend. " 

OBS.  2. — The  gend-fr  of  the  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second 
person  is  to  be  determined  by  referring  to  the  words  for  which  they 
are  used,  or  to  be  considered  as  of  the  common  gender. 

Declension  of  Pronouns. 

The  declension  of  a  pronoun  is  a  regular  arrangement  of 
its  numbers  and  cases. 

The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined  : — 

I,  of  the^rs^  person. 

Sing.  Norn.  I,  Plur.  Norn,  we, 

Poss.  my,  or  mine,  Poss.  our,  or  ours, 

Obj.    me ;  Obj.    us. 

Thou,  of  the  second  person. 

Sing.  Norn,  thou,  Plur.  Norn,  ye,  or  you, 

Poss.  thy,  or  thine,  Poss.  your,  or  yours, 

Obj.    thee;  Obj.    you. 

He,  of  the  third  person. 

Sing.  Nom.  he,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Poss.  his,  Poss.  their,  or  theirs, 

Obj.    him;  Obj.    them. 

She,  of  the  third  person. 

Sing.  Nom.  she,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Poss.  her,  or  hers,  Poss.  their,  or  theirs, 

Obj.     her ;  Obj.    them. 

It,  of  the  third  person. 

Sing.  Nom.  it,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Poss.  its,  Poss.  their,  or  their^ 

Obj.    it;  Obj.    them. 


PRONOUNS.  71 

• 

OBS.  1. — Most  of  the  personal  pronouns  have  two  forms  of  the  pos- 
sessive case,  in  each  number :  as,  my  or  mine,  our  or  ours ;  thy  or 
thine,  your  or  yours  ;  her  or  hers,  their  or  theirs.  The  former  is  used 
before  a  noun  expressed  ;  the  latter,  when  the  governing  noun  is  under- 
stood, or  when  the  possessive  pronoun  is  used  as  an  attribute ;  as,  "My 
powers  are  thine." 

OBS.  2. — Mine  and  thine  were  formerly  used  before  all  words  begin- 
ning with  a  vowel  sound ;  my  and  thy,  before  others ;  as,  "  It  was  thou, 
a  man,  mine  equal,  my  guide,  and  mine  acquaintance." — Psalm.  But 
this  usage  is  now  obsolete,  or  peculiar  to  the  poets ;  as, 

"Time  writes  no  wrinkle  on  thine  azure  brow." — Byron. 

OBS.  3. — In  ancient  times,  he,  his,  and  him,  were  applied  to  things 
neuter.  In  our  translation  of  the  Bible,  the  pronoun  it  is  employed  in 
the  nominative  and  the  objective,  but  his  is  retained  in  the  possessive, 
neuter;  as,  "Look  not  thou  upon  the  wine,  when  it  is  red,  when  it 
giveth  his  color  in  the  cup,  when  it  moveth  itself  aright." — Prov.  xxiii., 
31.  Its  is  not  found  in  the  Bible,  except  by  misprint. 

Compound  Personals. 

The  word  self,  added  to  the  simple  personal  pronouns, 
forms  the  class  of  compound  personal  pronouns  ;  which  are 
used  when  an  action  reverts  upon  the  agent,  and  also  when 
some  persons  are  to  be  distinguished  from  others  :  as,  sing. 
myself,  plur.  ourselves;  sing,  thyself,  plur.  yourselves ;  sing. 
himself,  plur.  themselves  ;  sing,  herself,  plur.  themselves  ;  sing. 
itself,  plur.  themselves.  They  all  want  the  possessive  case,  and 
are  alike  in  the  nominative  and  objective. 

Relatives  and  Interrogatives. 

The  relative  and  the  interrogative  pronouns  are  thus 
declined : — 

Who,  applied  only  to  persons. 

Sing.  Norn,  who,  Plur.  Norn,  who, 

Poss.  whose,  Poss.  whose, 

Obj.    whom ;  Obj.    whom. 


72  ETYMOLOGY. 

• 
Which,  applied  to  animals  and  things. 

Sing.  Norn,  which,  Plur.  Norn,  which, 

Poss.  * Pass. 

Obj.    which ;  Obj.    which. 

What,  generally  applied  to  things. 
Sing.  Norn,  what,  Plur.  Nom.  what, 

Poss.  Poss. • 

Obj.   what;  Obj.   what 

That,  applied  to  persons,  animals,  and  things. 

Sing.  Nom.  that,  Plur.  Nom.  that, 

Poss.  Poss. . 

Obj.    that;  Obj.    that 

Compound  Relatives. 

The  compound  relative  pronouns,  whoever  or  whosoever, 
whichever  or  whichsoever,  and  whatever  or  whatsoever,  are  de- 
clined in  the  same  manner  as  the  simples,  who,  which,  what. 


Exercises. 

I.  Write  the  nominative  plural  of  the  following  pronouns : — 

1.  them,  he,  she,  it,  who,  which,  that,  what. 

2.  Write  the  objective  singular  and  plural  of  aU  the  simple  pronouns. 

3.  Write  the  declension  of  the  following  :— 

Myself,  thyself,  himself,  herself,  itself,  whoever,  whosoever. 

4.  Correct  the  form  of  each  of  thefoUowing  :— 

Her's,  it's,  our's,  your's,  their's,  who's,  hisself,  theirselves. 

5.  Write  sentences,  each  containing  one  of  the  following  pronouns  : — 
Me,  them,  thou,  your,  their,  me,   ye,  himself,  myself,  themselves, 

who,  which,  whom,  what,  that,  whoever,  whichever,  whomsoever. 

*  Whose  is  sometimes  used  as  the  possessive  case  of  which;  aa,  "A  religion  whose 
origin  is  divine."— Blair. 


ANALYSIS,    PAUSING,   AND   CONSTRUCTION.          73 

VIII.— ANALYSIS,  PARSING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION. 

When  simple  sentences  are  connected,  they  form  CO  ITT 
pound  or  complex  sentences,  and  are  then  called 

clauses. 

A  clause,  therefore,  is  a  division  of  a  compound  or  Q 
complex  sentence. 

Compound  or  complex  clauses  are  sometimes  called  mem- 
bers. 

A  clause  used  as  one  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  sentence, 
or  as  an  adjunct  to  any  word  in  it,  is  called  a  dependent 
clause. 

The  clause  off  which  it  depends,  or  of  which  it  forms  a  part, 
is  called  the  principal  clause. 

A  complex  sentence  is  one  composed  of  a  principal 
clause  and  one  or  more  dependent  clauses. 

A  compound  sentence  is  one  composed  of  two  or 
more  independent  clauses. 

Clauses  may  be  connected  by  conjunctions,  relative  pro- 
nouns, or  adverbs  (then  called  conjunctive  adverbs). 

A  clause  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun,  is  often  called  a 
relative  clause. 

When  two  or  more  subjects,  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
belong  to  the  same  predicate,  or  two  or  more  connected  predi- 
cates have  the  same  subject,  the  sentence  should  be  considered 
simple  with  a  compound  subject  or  a  compound 
predicate. 

OBS. — The  relative  clause  is  a  dependent  clause,  and  the  sentence  in 
which  it  occurs  is  therefore  complex.  It  is  not,  however,  always  a 
modifying  clause,  being  sometimes  used  to  express  an  additional  fact. 
Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "This  is  the  man  that  committed  the  deed,"  the 
relative  clause  modifies  the  noun  man;  but  in  the  sentence,  "I  gave 
the  book  to  John,  who  has  lost  it,"  it  is  equivalent  to  "and  he  has  lost 
it."  In  each  case  it  is  used  like  an  adjective  ;  since  the  same  distinction 
applies  to  adjectives  as  to  relative  clauses,  some  being  used  to  modify, 
others  to  describe ;  as,  A  wild  beast  (modifying) ;  The  huge  elephant 
(descriptive). 


74  ETYMOLOGY, 


Exercises  in  Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Praxis  III.— Etymological. 

In  the  Third  Praxis,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil — to  classify  the  sert* 
fences  ;  to  point  out  the  component  clauses  ;  to  analyze  and  parse  each  as 
in  the  preceding  praxis  ;  and  to  state  the  classes  and  modifications  of  the 
pronouns.  Thus : — 

FIRST  EXAMPLE,  ANALYZED  AND  PARSED. 
"Children  who  disobey  their  parents,  deserve  punishment." 

ANALYEIS. — This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence  ;  the  principal  clause  is,  Children 
deserve  punishment,  and  the  dependent  clause  is,  Who  disobey  their  parents,  an  adjec- 
tive adjunct  of  children ;  the  connective  word  is  who. 

The  subject  noun  of  the  principal  clause  is  children  ;  the  predicate  verb  is  deserve  ; 
and  the  object  IB  punishment.  The  adjunct  of  the  subject  noun  is  the  dependent  clause; 
the  other  parts  have  no  adjuncts.  The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  who  ;  the 
predicate  verb  is  disobey ;  the  object  is  parents ;  the  adjunct  of  parents  is  their. 

PASSING. —  Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  because  it  represents  the  antecedent  word 
children,  and  connects  the  two  clauses  of  the  sentence  ;  it  is  of  the  third  person,  because 
it  represents  the  persons  spoken  of ;  of  the  plural  number,  because  it  denotes  more  than 
one ;  of  the  common  gender,  because  it  is  a  term  equally  applicable  to  both  sexes  ;  and 
im  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  disobey;  its  declension 
in  both  numbers  is,  Nom.  who  ;  Poss.  whose  ;  Obj.  whom. 

Their  is  a  personal  pronoun,  because  it  shows  by  its  form  that  it  is  of  the  third  person ; 
It  is  of  the  plural  number,  common  gender,  and  in  the  possessive  case,  because  it 
denotes  the  possession  of  parents.  Its  declension  is,  Nom.  they  ;  Poss,  their,  or  theirs ; 
Obj.  them. 

Parse  the  other  words  as  in  the  preceding  praxes. 

SECOND  EXAMPLE,  ANALYZED. 
"  Can  we  see  God,  or  must  we  believe  in  him  ?" 

A  compound  interrogative  sentence,  consisting  of  two  independent  clauses  connected 
by  or.  The  subject  of  the  first  clause  is  we  ;  the  predicate  verb,  can  see  ;  and  the  object^ 
God.  The  subject  of  the  second  clause  is  we ;  the  predicate  verb,  must  believe,  modified 
by  the  adverbial  phrase  adjunct  in  him. 

Prosperity  gains  many  friends,  but  adversity  tries  them. 

A  wise  son  heareth  his  father's  instruction,  but  a  scorner  heareth  not 
rebuke. 

He  who  conquers  his  passions,  overcomes  his  greatest  enemies. 

You  should  listen  patiently  if  you  would  speak  effectively. 

Virtue  refines  the  affections,  but  vice  debases  them. 

The  poems  of  Homer  celebrate  the  exploits  of  Achilles,  who  killed 
the  Trojan  prince  Hector. 


ANALYSIS,   PARSING,   AttD  COKSTfctJCTlOff.         75 

He  who  runs  may  read  so  plain  a  truth. 

Who  that  has  common  sense  can  entertain  so  absurd  a  action  ? 
When  will  you  complete  the  task  which  you  have  undertaken  ? 
The  eye,  that  sees  all  things,  cannot  see  itself. 
They  who  would  govern  others  must  first  govern  themselves. 
Flattery  often  succeeds,  when  reason  entirely  fails. 
We  are  often  benefited  by  what  we  have  dreaded. 
Frankness,  suavity,  and  benevolence  were  prominent  traits  in  the 
character  of  Dr.  Franklin. 

The  study  of  natural  history  expands  and  elevates  the  mind. 

Get  justly,  use  soberly,  distribute  cheerfully,  and  live  contentedly. 

Industry,  good  sense,  and  virtue  are  essential  to  happiness. 

Exercises  in  Construction. 

1.  Write  jive  compound  sentences,  eacfi  consisting  of  two  simple  clauses 
connected  by  and  or  but. 

2.  Write  five  complex  sentences,  each  containing  a  simple  relative  clause. 

Punctuation. — The  simple  clauses  composing  a  compound  sentence 
should  be  separated  by  a  comma ;  but  when  a  comma  is  used  to  separate 
the  parts  of  either,  a  semicolon  should  be  employed. 

A  relative  clause  should  be  separated  by  a  comma,  unless  it  is  used  as 
a  modifying  adjunct. 

When  a  relative  clause  is  a  modifying  adjunct,  it  can  often 
be  changed  to  an  adjective  or  participle ;  and  the  sentence 
will  then  become  simple.  Thus,  The  pupil  who  is  diligent  will 
excel,  can  be  changed  to  The  diligent  pupil  will  excel. 

Sometimes  a  phrase  consisting  of  a  noun  and  an  adjective 
can  be  substituted  for  the  relative  clause  and  the  antecedent. 
Thus,  He  who  labors  faithfully  will  succeed,  is  equivalent  to  A 
faithful  laborer  will  succeed. 

Change  the  following  complex  into  simple  sentences  by  either  of  the  two 
methods  above  indicated. 

A  man  who  is  honest  will  be  trusted. 

Lines  that  are  parallel  never  meet. 

A  king  that  oppresses  his  people  is  hated. 

The  key  that  is  used  is  always  bright. 

They  pitied  and  relieved  the  man  who  was  blind. 

They  who  slander  others  break  the  divine  commandment. 


76  ETYMOLOGY. 

He  who  studies  diligently  will  improve. 
He  that  tilleth  his  land  shall  be  satisfied  with  bread. 
The  spoils  belong  to  him  who  gains  the  victory. 
Persons  who  are  irritable  are  unpleasant  associates. 

When  the  relative  clause  is  not  a  modifying  adjunct,  the 
sentence  can  be  made  compound,  by  substituting  for  the  rela- 
tive pronoun  a  conjunction  and  a  personal  pronoun.  Thus, 
John,  who  committed  the  fault,  has  been  forgiven,  may  be 
changed  to,  John  committed  the  fault,  but  he  has  been  forgiven. 

Change  in  this  manner  the  following  complex  to  compound  sentences. 

Use  snch  conjunctions  as  and,  £/",  but,  because,  9ince. 

My  friend,  who  went  to  Europe,  has  returned. 

The  eye,  that  sees  all  things,  cannot  see  itself. 

Captain  John  Smith,  who  was  taken  by  the  Indians,  was  saved  by 
Pocahontas. 

Mr.  Williams,  who  failed  in  business  last  year,  has  commenced  again. 

He  gave  the  book  to  his  brother,  who  has  lost  it. 

The  letter  was  sent  by  a  messenger,  who  failed  to  deliver  it. 

The  traveler  narrated  a  very  curious  incident,  which  was  not  believed. 

Socrates,  who  was  pronounced  by  the  oracle  the  wisest  of  men,  was 
put  to  death  by  the  Athenians. 

Leonidas,  who  defended  the  pass  of  Thermopylae  against  the  Persian 
army,  was  a  great  patriot  and  hero. 

Composition. 

Write  a  composition  consisting  of  simple,  compound,  and  complex  sen- 
tences,  describing  each  of  the  following  objects — stating  its  use,  the  parts 
of  which  it  is  composed,  the  material  of  which  each  of  these  parts  is  made, 
and  what  different  trades  or  occupations  are  concerned  in  its  manufac- 
ture. 

A  book.  A  pen.  A  slate.  A  stove.  A  map.  A  globe.  A  bell.  A  clock. 
A  carriage.  A  shoe.  A  knife.  A  skate.  A  carpet.  A  plough.  A  silver 
dollar.  A  bank  bill.  An  umbrella.  A  house.  An  earthen  jug.  A  bottle. 
A  piano.  A  ship.  A  chair.  A  bureau.  A  broom. 

[The  teacher  should  supply  all  information  that  may  be  needed  by  the  pupils,  in  order 
to  make  the  description  sufficiently  full  and  accurate,  but  should  be  careful  that  the  pupils 
use  their  own  language,  and  apply  the  rules  and  principles  already  learned.  When  others 
are  violated,  the  corrections  may  be  made  arbitrarily.  In  this  way  the  huvbit  of  correctly 
using  language  will  be  cultivated.] 


VERBS.  77 

IX.— VERBS. 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be 
acted  upon. 

Classes. 

Verbs  are  divided,  with  respect  to  their  form,  into  four 
classes:  regular,  irregular,  redundant,  and  de- 
fective. 

A  regular  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  the  preterit  and 
the  perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed;  as,  love,  loved, 
loving,  loved . 

OBS.  1. — Whether  a  verb  is  regular  or  irregular  depends  upon  the 
changes  which  it  undergoes  in  order  to  express  differences  in  the  mode, 
time,  or  other  circumstances  of  the  action  or  being  indicated  by  the 
verb.  Thus,  the  verb  walk  becomes  walked  in  order  to  express  a  past 
action  ;  while  the  participle  is  derived  by  adding  ing  or  ed;  as,  walking, 
icalked.  These  additional  syllables,  which  change  the  primitive  form 
of  the  verb,  are  called  inflections.  In  some  languages  they  are  very 
numerous ;  but  in  English  they  are  quite  few,  the  language  in  this  re- 
spect being  very  simple. 

OBS.  2. — The  preterit  is  the  form  for  the  past.  There  are  four  parts 
in  every  verb  from  which  all  others  are  derived  :  the  present,  the  past 
or  preterit,  the  imperfect  participle  (always  ending  in  ing],  and  the  per- 
fect participle.  When  these  are  given  all  the  other  parts  of  the  verb 
become  known.  Hence,  they  are  called  the  principal  parts. 

An  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not  form  the 
preterit  and  the  perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed , 
as,  see,  saw,  seeing,  seen. 

A  redundant  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  the  preterit 
or  the  perfect  participle  in  two  or  more  ways,  and  so  as 
to  be  both  regular  and  irregular;  as,  thrive,  thrived  or 
throve,  thriving,  thrived  or  thriven. 

A  defective  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  no  participles, 
and  is  used  in  but  few  of  the  moods  and  tenses ;  as,  beware, 
ought,  quoth. 


78  ETYMOLOGY. 

OBS. — Regular  verbs  form  their  preterit  and  perfect  participle,  by 
adding  d  to  final  e,  and  ed  to  all  other  terminations.  The  verb  hear, 
heard,  hearing,  heard,  adds  d  to  r,  and  is  therefore  irregular. 

Verbs  are  divided  again,  with  respect  to  their  signifi- 
cation, into  four  classes :  active-transitive,  active- 
intransitive,  passive,  and  neuter. 

An  active-transitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses 
an  action  which  has  some  person  or  thing  for  its  object ; 
as,  " Cain  slew  Abel" 

An  active-intransitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses 
an  action  which  has  no  person  or  thing  for  its  object ;  as, 
"  John  walks" 

A  passive  verb  is  a  verb  that  represents  its  subject, 
or  nominative,  as  being  acted  upon ;  as,  "  I  am  com- 
pelled." 

OBS.  1. — It  must  be  understood  that  a  passive  verb  expresses  action, 
but  action  received  not  performed  by  the  subject.  Thus  the  object  of 
the  action  becomes  the  subject  of  the  verb.  Hence,  every  transitive  verb 
may  be  changed  into  a  passive  verb,  by  making  the  object  of  the  former 
the  subject  of  the  latter. 

OBS.  2. — Active-transitive  verbs  generally  take  the  agent  before  them 
and  the  object  after  them;  as,  "Caesar  conquered  Pompey."  Passive 
verbs  (which  are  derived  from  active-transitive  verbs)  reverse  this  order, 
and  denote  that  the  subject,  or  nominative,  is  affected  by  the  action ; 
and  the  agent  follows,  being  introduced  by  the  preposition  by;  as, 
"  Porapey  was  conquered  by  Caesar." 

OBS.  3. — An  active-intransitive  verb,  followed  by  a  preposition  and 
its  object,  will  sometimes  admit  of  being  put  into  the  passive  form,  the 
object  of  the  preposition  being  assumed  for  the  nominative,  and  the 
preposition  being  retained  with  the  verb,  as  an  adverb :  as,  (Active,) 
"They  laughed  at  him." — (Passive,)  "He  was  laughed  at." 

A  neuter  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses  neither  action 
nor  passion,  but  simply  being,  or  a  state  of  being ;  as, 
"Thou  art."— "  He  sleeps." 


VEEBS.  79 

Exercises. 

1.  Classify  aK  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences,  both  as  to  form  and 
tignification. 

[See  list  of  Irregular  Verbs,  page  98.] 

I  mailed  the  letter.  The  letter  was  mailed  by  me.  The  horse  was 
shod.  The  pitcher  was  broken.  He  has  failed  in  business.  The  boy 
told  an  untruth.  The  ship  has  sailed.  He  was  chosen  president.  I 
have  written  a  letter.  The  boiler  burst.  The  man  is  honest.  He 
walks  rapidly.  The  plant  grows.  '  .The  boy  is  swimming.  The  child  is 
sleeping.  They  sat  still.  Give  me  a  book.  Beware  of  slanderers. 
A  child  ought  to  obey  his  parents. 

2.  Construct  another  sentence  from  each  of  the  verbs  in  the  above  exer- 
cise, using  a  different  form. 

3.  Write  three  sentences,  each  containing  a  regular  verb  ; — also  three, 
each  containing  an  irregular  verb  ; — three,  each  containing  a  redundant 
verb  ; — and  one  containing  a  defective  verb. 

Modifications. 

The  modifications  or  inflections  of  verbs  are  for  two  pur- 
poses : — 1.  To  express  some  particular  manner  or  time  of  the 
being,  action,  or  passion.  2.  To  indicate  the  person  and 
number  of  the  subject  or  nominative.  Hence  it  is  said  : 

Yerbs  have  modifications  of  four  kinds;  namely, 
moods,  tenses,  persons,  and  numbers. 

Moods. 

Moods  are  different  forms  of  the  verb,  each  of  which 
expresses  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  in  some  particular 
manner. 

There  are  five  moods:  the  infinitive,  the  indica- 
tive, the  potential,  the  subjunctive,  and  the 
Imperative. 

The  infinitive  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which 
expresses  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  in  an  unlimited 
manner,  and  without  person  or  number ;  as,  To  read,  to 
speak. 


80  ETYMOLOGY. 

OBB.  1. — Tk«  infinitive  mood  has  no  person  or  number,  that  is,  no 
inflections  to  indicate  person  or  number,  because  it  has  no  subject  nomi- 
native. It  may  have  a  subject,  that  is  a  word  indicating  the  person  or 
thing  of  whom  the  being  or  action  is  indirectly  asserted ;  but  this  word 
must  be  in  the  objective  case,  depending  upon  some  other  verb.  Thus, 
in  the  sentence,  1  tohl  John  to  (rrite,  John  is  the  subject  of  the  infini- 
tive write,  and  the  object  of  the  verb  told;  hence,  it  is  in  the  objective 
case. 

OBS.  2. — A  verb  in  any  other  mood  than  the  infinitive,  is  called,  by 
way  of  distinction,  a  finite  vej'b. 

The  indicative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which 
simply  indicates  or  declares  a  thing,  or  asks  a  question : 
as,  I  write  /  you  know  •  Do  you  know  ? 

The  potential  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which 
expresses  the  power,  liberty,  possibility,  or  necessity  of  the 
being,  action,  or  passion :  as,  I  can  read ;  we  must  go. 

The  subjunctive  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb 
which  represents  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  as  con- 
ditional, doubtful,  and  contingent;  as,  "If  thou  go,  see 
that  thou  offend  not." 

OBS. — The  subjunctive  mood  is  always  connected  with  another  verb. 
Its  dependence  is  usually  denoted  by  a  conjunction  ;  as,  if,  that,  though, 

le-st,  unless. 

The  imperative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb 
which  is  used  in  commanding,  exhorting,  entreating,  or 
permitting ;  as,  "  Depart  thou." — " Be  comforted" 

Tenses. 

Tenses  are  those  modifications  of  the  verb  which  dis- 
tinguish time. 

There  are  six  tenses:  the  present,  the  imperfect, 
the  perfect,  the  pluperfect,  the  first-future,  and 
the  second-future. 

The  present  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what 
now  exists,  or  is  taking  place:  as,  UI  hear  a  noise;  some- 
body is  coining" 


VERBS.  .  81 

The  Imperfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what 
took  place,  or  was  occurring,  in  time  fully-past :  as,  "  I  saw 
him  yesterday ;  he  was  walking  out." 

The  perfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what  has 
taken  place,  within  some  period  of  time  not  yet  fully  past ; 
as,  "  I  have  seen  him  to-day." 

The  pluperfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what 
had  taken  place,  at  some  past  time  mentioned ;  as,  "  I  had 
seen  him,  when  I  met  you." 

The  first-future  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what 
will  take  place  hereafter ;  as,  "I  shall  see  him  again." 

The  second -future  tense  is  that  which  expresses 
what  will  have  taken  place,  at  some  future  time  mentioned  ; 
as,  "  I  shall  have  seen  him  by  to-morrow  noon." 

OBS.  1. — There  are  two  circumstances  on  which  the  distinction  of  tense 
is  based : — 

1.  Whether  the  time  is  present,  past,  or  future. 

2.  Whether  the  action  is  perfect  or  imperfect — complete  or  incom- 
plete— in  regard  to  each  distinction  of  time.     Hence,  there  must  be  six 
tenses  to  express  this  twofold  distinction  : — 

1.  Present  )  (  Present  tense. 

2.  Past  Imperfect  tense. 

3.  Future  )  (  First-future  tense 

4.  Present  ]  (  Perfect  tense. 

5.  Past  Perfect  •<  Pluperfect  tense. 

6.  Future  )  '  Second-future  tense. 


OBS.  2. — The  tenses  do  not  all  express  time  with  equal  precision. 
Those  of  the  indicative  mood,  are  the  most  definite.  The  time  expressed 
by  the  same  tenses  (or  what  are  called  by  the  same  names)  in  the  other 
moods,  is  frequently  relative,  and  sometimes  indefinite. 

OBS.  3. — The  present  tense,  in  the  indicative  mood,  expresses  general 
truths,  and  customary  actions;  as,  "Vice  produces  misery." — "She 
often  visits  us."  We  also  use  it  in  speaking  of  persons  who  are  dead, 
but  whose  works  remain  ;  as,  "  Seneca  reasons  well." 

OBS.  4. — The  present  tense  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  and  in  the  other 
moods,  when  preceded  by  as  soon  as^  after ',  before,  till,  or  when,  is  gen* 
6 


82  ETYMOLOGY. 

erallj  used  with  reference  to  future  time  ;  as,  "  If  he  ask  a  fish,  will  he 
give  him  a  serpent  ?" — Matt,  vi.,  10.  "When  he  arrives,  I  will  send 
for  you." 

OBS.  5. — In  animated  narrative,  the  present  tense  is  sometimes  sub- 
stituted (by  the  figure  enaUage)  for  the  imperfect;  as,  "Ulysses  wakes, 
not  knowing  where  he  was." — Pope. 

OBS.  6. — The  present  infinitive  can  scarcely  be  said  to  express  any 
particular  time.  It  is  usually  dependent  on  another  verb,  and,  there- 
fore, relative  in  time.  It  may  be  connected  with  any  tense  of  any 
mood ;  as,  "I  intend  to  do  it,  I  intended  to  do  it,  I  have  intended  to  do 
it,"  etc.  It  is  often  used  to  express  futurity  ;  as,  "The  time  to  come." 
— " The  world  to  come." — "  Rapture  yet  to  be." 

Inflections. — Persons  and  Numbers. 

As  there  are  tivo  numbers  and  three  persons,  there  must  be 
six  distinctions,  to  express  which  a  verb  may  be  inflected,  or 
changed,  to  agree  with  its  subject ;  but,  as  already  stated,  the 
inflections  used  in  English  are  very  few.  Thus,  the  verb  love, 
in  the  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  has  only  the  following 
forms: 


Singular.  Plural. 

1st  per.  love,  love, 

2d  per.  loves£,  love, 

3d  per.  loves  /  love. 


Singular.  Plural. 

1st  per.  go,  go, 

2d  per.  goest,  go, 

3d  per.    goes;  go. 


It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  only  two  inflections,  both 
being  in  the  singular :  the  addition  of  st  (or  est)  for  the  second 
person,  and  s  (or  es)  for  the  third  ;  the  first  person,  singular, 
and  all  the  persons  in  the  plural  being  alike. 

OBS.  1. — The  third  person  singular  was  anciently  formed  in  th  or  eth, 
but  this  inflection  is  now'only  used  in  the  formal  or  solemn  style.  Doth, 
hath,  and  saith  are  contractions  of  verbs  thus  formed. 

OBS.  2. — The  customary  mode  of  familiar  as  well  as  complimentary 
address  is  altogether  plural,  both  the  verb  and  the  pronoun  being  used 
in  that  form.  The  singular  is,  however,  invariably  employed  in  refer- 
ence to  the  Supreme  Being,  in  poetry,  and  in  the  solemn  style,  generally. 
Although  the  pronoun  you  is  used  with  a  singular  meaning,  the 
must  be  plural,  because  the  forms  must  agree. 


VERBS.  83 

OBS.  3. — In  the  solemn  style  (except  in  poetry,  which  usually  con- 
tracts these  forms),  the  second  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative, 
and  that  of  the  irregular  preterits,  commonly  end  in  est,  pronounced  as 
a  separate  syllable.  But  as  the  termination  ed,  in  solemn  discourse, 
constitutes  a  syllable,  the  regular  preterits  form  the  second  person  sin- 
gular, by  adding  st,  without  further  increase  of  syllables;  as,  loved, 
lovedst—not  lovedest.  Dost  and  hast,  and  the  irregular  preterits  wast, 
didst,  and  hadst,  are  permanently  contracted.  The  auxiliaries  shall  and 
witt,  change  the  final  I  to  t.  To  the  auxiliaries  may,  can,  might,  could, 
would,  and  should,  the  termination  est  was  formerly  added ;  but  they 
are  now  generally  written  with  st  only,  and  pronounced  as  monosyllables, 
even  in  solemn  discourse. 

OBS.  4. — When  the  second  person  singular  is  employed  in  familiar 
discourse,  it  is  usually  formed  in  a  manner  strictly  analogous  to  that 
which  is  now  adopted  in  the  third  person  singular.  When  the  verb 
ends  in  a  sound  which  will  unite  with  that  of  st  or  s,  the  second  person 
singular  is  formed  by  adding  st  only,  and  the  third  by  adding  s  only ; 
and  the  number  of  syllables  is  not  increased :  as,  I  read,  thou  readst,  he 
reads  ;  I  know,  thou  knowst,  he  knows  ;  I  take,  thou  takest,  he  takes. 
For  when  the  verb  ends  in  mute  e,  no  termination  renders  this  e  vocal 
in  the  familiar  style,  if  a  synseresis  can  take  place. 

OBS.  5. — But  when  the  verb  ends  in  a  sound  which  will  not  unite 
with  that  of  st  or  s,  st  and  s  are  added  to  final  e,  and  est  and  es  to  other 
terminations ;  and  the  verb  acquires  an  additional  syllable  :  as,  I  trace, 
thou  tracest,  he  traces ;  I  pass,  thou  passest,  he  passes  ;  I  fix,  thou 
fixest,  he  fixes.  But  verbs  ending  in  o  or  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  do 
not  exactly  follow  this  rule:  .in  these,  y  is  changed  into  i;  and  to  both 
o  and  i,  est  and  es  are  added  without  increase  of  syllables :  as,  I  go,  thou 
goest,  he  goes;  I  undo,  thou  undoest,  he  wndoes;  I  fly,  thou  fliest,  he 
flies;  I  pity,  ihou  pitiest,  he  pities. 

OBS.  6. — The  auxiliaries  do,  dost,  does  [pronounced  doo,  dust,  duz] — 
am,  art,  is — liave,  hast,  has, — being  also  in  frequent  use  as  principal 
verbs  of  the  present  tense,  retain  their  peculiar  form  when  joined  to  other 
verbs.  The  other  auxiliaries  are  not  varied,  except  in  the  solemn  style. 

OBS.  7. — The  only  regular  terminations  that  are  added  to  verbs,  are 
ing,  d  or  ed,  st  or  est ,  s  or  es,  th  or  eth.  Ing,  and  th  or  eth,  always  add  a 
syllable  to  the  verb ;  except  in  doth,  hath,  saith.  The  rest,  whenever 
their  sound  will  unite  with  that  of  the  final  syllable  of  the  verb,  are 
added  without  increasing  the  number  of  syllables  ;  otherwise,  they  are 
separately  pronounced.  In  solemn  discourse,  however,  ed  and  est  are, 
by  most  speakers,  uttered  distinctly  in  all  cases,  except  sometimes, 
when  a  vowel  precedes, 


84  ETYMOLOGY. 

Conjugation  of  Verbs. 

The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  a  regular  arrangement 
of  its  moods,  tenses,  persons,  numbers,  and  participles. 

OBS. — The  moods  and  tenses  are  formed  partly  by  inflections,  or 
changes  made  in  the  verb  itself,  and  partly  by  the  combination  of  the 
verb  or  its  participle,  with  a  few  short  verbs  called  auxiliaries,  or  help- 
ing verbs. 

There  are  four  principal  parts  in  the  conjugation  of 
every  simple  and  complete  verb ;  namely,  the  present, 
the  preterit,  the  imperfect  participle,  and  the 
perfect  participle.  A  verb  which  wants  any  of 
these  parts  is  called  defective :  such  are  most  of  the 
auxiliaries. 

OBS. — The  present  is  radically  the  same  in  all  the  moods,  and  is  the 
part  from  which  all  the  rest  are  formed.  The  present  infinitive  is  the 
root,  or  simplest  form,  of  the  verb.  The  preterit  and  the  perfect  parti- 
ciple are  regularly  formed  by  adding  d  or  eel,  and  the  imperfect  parti- 
ciple by  adding  ing,  to  the  present. 

An  auxiliary  is  a  short  verb  prefixed  to  one  of  the 
principal  parts  of  another  verb,  to  express  some  particular 
mode  and  time  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion.  The  aux- 
iliaries are  do,  ~be,  have,  shaft,  wiU,  may,  can,  and  must, 
with  their  variations. 

OBS.  1. — Do,  be,  and  have,  being  also  principal  verbs,  are  complete: 
but  the  pa  ticiples  of  do  and  have  are  not  used  as  auxiliaries ;  unless 
having,  which  forms  the  compound  participle,  may  be  considered  as 
such.  The  other  auxiliaries  have  no  participles. 

OBS.  2. — English  verbs  are  principally  conjugated  by  means  of 
auxiliaries,  the  only  tenses  which  can  be  formed  by  the  simple  verb, 
being  the  present  and  the  imperfect ;  as,  I  lore,  I  loved.  And  even  here 
an  auxiliary  is  usually  preferred  in  questions  and  negations  ;  as,  Do  you 
love  ?  You  do  not  love.  All  the  other  tenses,  even  in  their  simplest 
form,  are  compounds. 

OBS.  3. — The  form  of  conjugating  the  active  verb  is  often  called  the 
Active  Voice ;  and  that  of  the  passive  verb,  the  Passive  Voice.  These 
terms  are  borrowed  from  the  Latin  and  Greek  grammars,  and  are  of 
Uttle  or  no  use 


, 

YERBS.  85 

OBS.  4.  —  English  verbs  having  few  inflections,  it  is  convenient  to  insert 
in  the  conjugations  the  preposition  to,  to  mark  the  infinitive  ;  pronouns, 
to  distinguish  the  persons  and  numbers  ;  the  conjunction  if,  to  demote 
the  subjunctive  ;  and  the  adverb  not,  to  show  the  form  of  negation. 
With  these  additions,  a  verb  may  be  conjugated  in  four  ways  : 

1.  Affirmatively  ;  as,  I  write,  I  do  write,  or  I  am  writing. 

2.  Negatively  ;  as,  I  write  not,  I  do  not  write,  or,  I  am  not  writing. 

3.  Interrogatively  ;  as,  Write  I  ?  Do  I  write  ?  or,  Am  I  writing  ? 

4.  Interrogatively  and  negatively;  as,  Write  I  not  ?  Do  I  not  write? 
or,  4m  I  not  writing? 

Simple  Form,  Active  or  Neuter. 

The  simplest  form  of  an  English  conjugation,  is  that  which 
makes  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses  without  auxiliaries  ; 
but,  even  in  these,  auxiliaries  are  required  for  the  potential 
mood,  and  are  often  preferred  for  the  indicative. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VEEB  LOVE. 
Principal  Parts. 

Present.  Preterit.  Imper.  Participle.          Perfect  Participle. 

Love.  Loved.  Loving.  Loved. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense.  To  love. 

Perfect  Tense.    To  have  loved.  .   . 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

1st  per.  I         love,  1st  per.  We     love, 

%d  per.  Thou  lovest,  2d  per.  You   love, 

3d  per.  He      loves  ;  3d  per.  They  love. 

This  tense  may  also  be  formed  by  prefixing  the  auxiliary  do  to  the 
rerb  :  — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         do    love,  1.  We     do  love, 

2.  Thou  dost  love,  2.  You   do  love, 

3.  He     does  love  ;  3.  They  do  love. 


86  ETYMOLOGY. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         loved,  1.  We     loved, 

2.  Thou  lovedst,  2.  You   loved, 

3.  He      loved  ;  3.  They  loved. 

This  tense  may  also  be  formed  by  prefixing  the  auxiliary  did  to  th« 
present : — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I     .    did    love,  1.  We     did  love, 

2.  Thou  didst  love,  2.  You    did  love, 

3.  He      did     love ;  3.  They  did  love. 

OBS. — In  a  familiar  question  or  negation,  the  auxiliary  form  is  prefer- 
able to  the  simple.  But  in  the  solemn  or  the  poetic  style,  the  simple 
form  is  more  dignified  and  graceful;  as,  "  Understandest  thou  what  thou 
readest  ?"— "Of  whom  speaketh  the  prophet  this  ?  "—Acts.—"  Say, 
heard  ye  naught  of  lowland  war  ?  " — Scott. 

Perfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  have  to  the  perfect  participle  : — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         have  loved,  1.  We     have  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  loved,  2.  You    have  loved, 

3.  He      has    loved  ;  3.  They  have  loved*. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  had  to  the  perfect  participle  : — 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         had     loved,  1.  We     had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved,  2.  You    had  loved, 

3.  He      had     loved  ;  3.  They  had  loved. 

First-future  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  shatt  or  witt  to  the  present  :— 

1.  Simply  to  express  a  future  action  or  event : — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  love,  1.  We     shall  love, 

2.  Thou  wilt  love,  2.  You   will    love, 

3.  He     will  love  ;  3.  They  will   love. 


VERBS.  87 

2.  To  express  a  promise,  volition,  command,  or  threat : — 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         will    love,  1.  We     will  love, 

2.  Thou  shalt  love,  2.  You   shall  love, 

3.  He      shall  love  ;  3.  They  shall  love. 

OBS. — In  interrogative  sentences,  the  meaning  of  these  auxiliaries  is 
reversed.  When  preceded  by  a  conjunction  implying  condition  or  un- 
certainty, their  import  is  somewhat  varied. 

Second -future  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries  shall  have  or  wiU  have  to  the  perfect 
participle : — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  have  loved,          1.  We     shall  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt   have  loved,          2.  You   will  have  loved, 

3.  He      will   have  loved  ;        3.  They  will  have  loved. 

OBS.  —The  auxiliary  shall  may  also  be  used  in  the  second  and  third 
persons  of  this  tense,  when  preceded  by  a  conjunction  expressing  con- 
dition or  contingency  ;  as,  "If  he  shall  have  finished  his  work  when  I 
return."  And  perhaps  witt  may  here  be  used  in  the  first  person  to  ex- 
press a  promise  or  a  determination,  though  such  usage,  I  think,  very 
seldom  occurs. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  may,  can,  or  must,  to  the  radical 
verb : — 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  I         may     love,  1.  We     may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love,  2.  You   may  love, 

3.  He      may     love  ;  3.  They  may  love. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  might,  could,  would,  or  should,  to  the 
radical  verb: — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might     love,  L  We     might  love, 

2.  Thou  mightst  love,  2.  You   might  love, 

3.  He     might    love  ;  3.  They  might  love. 


88  ETYMOLOGY. 

Perfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries,  may  have,  can  have,  or  must  havet 
to  the  perfect  participle  : — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     have  loved,  1.  We     may  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved,  2.  You    may  have  loved, 

3.  He      may     have  loved ;          3.  They  may  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries,  might  have,  could  have,  would  have, 
or  should  Jiave,  to  the  perfect  participle  : — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might     have  loved,  1.  We     might  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved,  2.  You    might  have  loved, 

3.  He      might     have  loved  ;  3.  They  might  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

This  tense  is  generally  used  to  express  some  condition  on  which  a 
future  action  or  event  is  affirmed.  It  is  therefore  considered  by  some 
grammarians,  as  an  elliptical  form  of  the  future. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I         love,  1.  If  we     love, 

2.  If  thou  love,  2.  If  you  love, 

3.  If  he       love;  3.  If  they  love. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

OBS. — This  tense  is  indefinite,  as  it  may  refer  to  time  past,  present, 
or  future. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        loved,  1.  If  we    loved, 

2.  If  thou  loved,  2.  If  you  loved, 

3.  If  he      loved;  3.  If  they  loved. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2.  Love  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  love. 
Plural.      2.  Love  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you  love. 


VERBS.  89 

OBS. — This  tense  is  commonly  used  only  in  t-he  second  person,  but 
there  seem  to  be  occasional  exceptions  to  this  ;  as,  ' '  Blessed  be  he  that 
blesseth  thee." — "  Thy  kingdom  come."—"  My  soul,  turn  from  them — 
turn  we  to  survey." — Goldsmith. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  Imperfect.  2.  The  Perfect.  3.  The  Preperfect. 

Loving.  Loved.  Having  loved. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  FIRST  EXAMPLE. 
First  Person  Singular. 

INDICATIVE.  I  love,  I  loved,  I  have  loved,  I  had  loved,  I  shall  love, 
I  shall  have  loved.  POTENTIAL.  I  may  love,  I  might  love,  I  may  have 

loved,  I  might  have  loved.     SUBJUNCTIVE.  If  I  love,  If  I  loved. 
f 
Second  Person  Singular. 

INDICATIVE.  Thou  lovest,  Thou  lovedst,  Thou  hast  loved,  Thou 
hadst  loved,  Thou  wilt  love,  Thou  wilt  have  loved.  POTENTIAL.  Thou 
mayst  love,  Thou  mightst  love,  Thou  mayst  have  loved.  Thou  mights* 
have  loved.  SUBJUNCTIVE.  If  thou  love,  If  thou  loved.  IMPERATIVE. 
Love  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  love. 

Third  Person  Singular. 

INDICATIVE.  He  loves,  He  loved,  He  has  loved,  He  had  loved,  He 
will  love,  He  will  have  loved.  POTENTIAL.  He  may  love,  He  might 
love,  He  may  have  loved,  He  might  have  loved.  SUBJUNCTIVE.  If  he 
love,  If  he  loved. 

First  Person  Plural. 

INDICATIVE.  We  love,  We  loved,  We  have  loved,  We  had  loved, 
We  shall  love,  We  shall  have  loved.  POTENTIAL.  We  may  love,  We 
might  love,  We  may  have  loved,  We  might  have  loved.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 
If  we  love,  If  we  loved. 

Second  Person  Plural. 

INDICATIVE.  You  love,  You  loved,  You  have  loved,  You  had  loved, 
You  will  love,  You  will  have  loved.  POTENTIAL.  You  may  love,  You 
might  love,  You  may  have  loved,  You  might  have  loved.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 
If  you  love,  If  you  loved.  IMPERATIVE.  Love  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you  love, 

Third  Person  Plural. 

INDICATIVE. — They  love,  They  loved,  They  have  loved,  They  had 
loved,  Tfhey  will  love,  They  will  have  loved.  POTENTIAL.  They  may 
love,  They  might  love,  They  may  have  loved,  They  might  have  loved. 
SUBJUNCTIVE.  If  they  love,  If  they  loved. 


90  ETYMOLOGY. 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  SEE. 
Principal  Parts. 

Present.  Preterit.  Imp.  Participle.  Perfect  Participle. 

See.  Saw.  Seeing.  Seen. 

IKETNTTTVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense.     To  see. 
Perfect  Tense.     To  have  seen. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I        see,  1.  We    see, 

2.  Thou  seest,  2.  You   see, 

3.  He      sees  ;  3.  They  sea 

M>^v 
imperfect   Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         saw,  1.  We     saw, 

2.  Thou  sawest,  2.  You    saw, 

3.  He     saw;  3.  They  saw. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I        have  seen,  1.  We    have  seen, 

2.  Thou  hast  seen,  2.  You   have  seen, 

3.  He     has    seen  ;  3.  They  have  seen. 


Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         had     seen,  1.  We    had  seen, 

2.  Thou  hadst  seen,  2.  You   had  seen, 

3.  He     had    seen  ;  3.  They  had  seen, 


VERBS.  91 

r 

First-future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  see,  1.  We     shall  see, 

2.  Thou  wilt  see,  2.  You   will   see, 

3.  He      will   see  ;  3.  They  will   see. 

•~i(  UAAAA±,fr^4t£/( 
Second-future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  have  seen,  1.  We     shall  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  wilt   have  seen,  2.  You    will  have  seen, 

3.  He      will    have  seen  ;  3.  They  will  have  seen. 

^      POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     see,  1.  We     may  see, 

2.  Thou  mayst  see,  2.  You   may  see, 

3.  He      may     see  ;  ,       3.  They  may  see. 

; 
Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might     see,  1.  We    might  see> 

2.  Thou  mightst  see,  2.  You   might  see, 

3.  He      might     see  ;  3.  They  might  see. 


Perfect  Tense. 


Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     have  seen,  1.  We    may  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  seen,  2.  You    may  have  seen, 

3.  He      may     have  seen  ;  3.  They  may  have  seen. 


Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might     have  seen,  1.  We    might  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  seen,  2.  You   might  have  seen, 

3.  He     might    have  seen  ;  3.  They  might  have  seen. 


92  ETYMOLOGY. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        see,  1.  If  we 

2.  If  thou  see,  2.  If  you    see, 

3.  If  he     see ;  3.  If  they  see. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        saw,  1.  If  we     saw, 

2.  If  thou  saw,  2.  If  you  saw, 

3.  If  he     saw  ;  3.  If  they  saw. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2.  See  [thou,]          or  Do  thou  see. 
Plural.      2.  See  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you  see. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  Imperfect.  2.  The  Perfect.  3.  The  Preperfect. 

Seeing.  Seen.  Having  seen. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB    BE. 
Principal  Parts. 

Present.         Preterit.         Imperfect  Participle.         Perfect  Participle. 
Be.  Was.  Being.  Been. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense.     To  be. 
Perfect  Tense.     To  have  been. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         am,  1.  We     are, 

2.  Thou  art,  2.  You    are, 

3.  He     is ;  3.  They  are. 


VEBB8. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I        was,  1.  .We    were, 

2.  Thou  wast,*  2.  You   were, 

3.  He     was  ;  3.  They  were. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         have  been,  1.  We    have  been, 

2.  Thou  hast  been,  2.  You   have  been, 

3.  He      has    been  ;  3.  They  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         had     been,  1.  We    had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been,  2.  You   had  been, 

3.  He      had     been ;  3.  They  had  been. 

First-future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  be,  1.  We    shall  be, 

%.  Thou  wilt   be,  2.  You   will  be, 

3.  He      will   be;  3.  They  will  be. 

Second -future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  have  been,  1.  We     shall  have  been, 

2.  Thou  wilt   have  been,  2.  You   will   have  been, 

3.  He      will   have  been  ;  3.  They  will  have  been. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  I         may     be,  1.  We     may  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be,  2.  You   may  be, 

3.  He      may     be ;  3.  They  may  be. 

*  OBS.— In  poetry,  wert  is  sometimes  used  indicatively  for  wast ;  as, 

"  Yainly  wert  thou  wed." — Byron. 
**  WUftte'er  tbou  art  or  wert,n— /<J. 


94  ETYMOLOGY. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          might     be,  1.  We     might  be, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be,  2.  You    might  be, 

3.  He      might     be  ;  3.  They  might  be. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          may     have  been,  1.  We     may  have  been> 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been,  2.  You    may  have  been, 

3.  He      may     have  been  ;  3.   They  may  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          might     have  been,  1.  We     might  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been,  2.  You    might  have  been, 

3.  He      might     have  been  ;  3.  They  might  have  been- 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        be,                        1.  If  we    be, 

2.  Ifthoube,                         2.  If  you  be, 

3.  If  he     be  ;                       3.  If  they  be. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        were,  1.  If  we    were, 

2.  If  thou  wert,  or  were,  2.  If  you  were, 

3.  If  he     were  ;  3.  If  they  were. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2.  Be  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  be. 
Plural.      2.  Be  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you  be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  Imperfect.  2.   The  Perfect.  3.  The  Preperfect. 

Being.  Been,  Having  been. 


VEEBS.  95 

Compound  Form,  Active  or  Neuter. 

Active  and  neuter  verbs  may  also  be  conjugated,  by  adding 
the  Imperfect  Participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb  BE,  through  all 
its  changes  ;  as,  I  am  writing — He  is  sitting.  This  form  of 
the  verb  is  used  to  denote  a  continuance  of  the  action  or  the 
state  of  being. 

OBS. — In  this  form  of  the  verb,  the  active  participle  is  sometimes 
used  with  a  passive  meaning:  as,  "The  books  are  now  selling  ;"  instead 
of  being  sold. — "The  designs  of  Providence  are  carrying  on." — Bp. 
Butler.  This  idiom  is  approved  bj  good  critics  and  writers. 


COMPOUND  FORM  OF  THE  VEEB   READ. 
Principal  Parts  of  the  Simple  Verb. 

Present.  Preterit.  Imperf.  Participle.        Perf.  Participle. 

Bead.  Bead.  Reading.  Read. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense.  To  be  reading. 
Perfect  Tense.  To  have  been  reading. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         am  reading,  1.  We    are  reading, 

2.  Thou  art  reading,  2.  You  are  reading, 

3.  He      is    reading ;  3.  They  are  reading. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  I         was  reading,  1.  We    were  reading, 

2.  Thou  wast  reading,  2.  You   were  reading, 

3.  He      was  reading;  3.  They  were  reading. 


96  ETYMOLOGY. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         have  been  reading,  1.  We    have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  reading,  2.  You   have  been  reading, 

3.  He      has    been  reading ;  3.  They  have  been  reading. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  I         had     been  reading,  1.  We    had  been  reading. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  reading,  2.  You   had  been  reading, 

3.  He      had    been  reading ;          3.  They  had  been  reading. 

First-future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  be  reading,  1.  We    shall  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  reading,  2.  You  will    be  reading, 

3.  "He      will   be  reading ;          3.  They  will  be  reading. 

Second-future  Tense. 

Singular.     1.  I         shall  have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  reading, 

3.  He      will   have  been  reading  ; 

Plural.         1.  We     shall  have  been  reading, 

2.  You   will   have  been  reading, 

3.  They  will   have  been  reading. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     be  reading,  1.  We     may  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  reading,  2.  You    may  be  reading, 

3.  He      may     be  reading ;  3.  They  may  be  reading. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might     be  reading,  1.  We     might  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  reading,  2.  You   might  be  reading, 

3.  He      might     be  reading  ;          3.  They  might  be  reading. 


VERBS. 


97 


Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.     1.  I         may     have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  reading, 

3.  He      may     have  been  reading  ; 

Plural.         1.  We     may  have  been  reading, 

2.  You    may  have  been  reading, 

3.  They  may  have  been  reading. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.     1.  I         might     have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  reading, 

3.  He      might     have  been  reading ; 

Plural.         1.  *We     might  have  been  reading, 

2.  You    might  have  been  reading, 

3.  They  might  have  been  reading. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        be  reading,  1.  If  we     be  reading, 

2.  If  thou  be  reading,  2.  If  you  be  reading, 

3.  If  he      be  reading ;  3.  If  they  be  reading. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        were  reading,  1.  If  we     were  reading, 

2.  If  thou  wert  reading,  2.  If  you  were  reading, 

3.  If  he      were  reading  ;  3.  If  they  were  reading. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2.  Be  [thou]  reading,  or  Do  thou  be  reading. 
Plural.      2.  Be  [ye  or  you]  reading,  or  Do  you  be  reading. 


1.  The  Imperfect. 
Being  reading. 


PARTICIPLES. 
2.  The  Perfect. 


3.  The  Preperfect. 
Having  been  reading. 


98  ETYMOLOGY. 

Form  of  Passive  Verbs. 

Passive  verbs,  in  English,  are  always  of  a  compound  form, 
being  made  from  active-transitive  verbs,  by  adding  the  per- 
fect participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb  BE  through  all  its  changes  : 
thus  from  the  active-transitive  verb  love  is  formed  the  pas- 
sive verb  be  loved. 

OBS. — The  passive  form  seems  to  be  assumed  by  some  intransitive 
verbs :  as,  I  am  come  ;  He  is  risen  ;  They  are  fallen.  In  this  case  the 
participle  relates  to  the  subject,  and  does  not  form  a  part  of  the  predi- 
cate verb.  The  usual  active  form  is  preferable :  as,  /  have  come  ; — He 
has  risen; — They  have  arrived. 

CONJUGATION   OF  THE   PASSIVE  VERB 

BE    LOVED. 
Principal  Parts  of  the  Active  Verb. 

Present.  Preterit.  Imperf.  Participle.       Perfect  Participle. 

Love.  Loved.  Loving.  Loved. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense.     To  be  loved. 
Perfect  Tense.     To  have  been  loved. 

v 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  I         am  loved,  1.  We     are  loved, 

2.  Thou  art  loved,  2.  You   are  loved, 

3.  He      is    loved  ;  3.  They  are  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I         was  loved,  1.  We    were  loved, 

2.  Thou  wast  loved,  2.  You   were  loved, 

3.  He     was  loved  ;  3.  They  were  loved 


VERBS.  99 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         have  been  loved,  1.  We    have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved,  2.  You   have  been  loved, 

3.  He     has    been  loved  ;         3.  They  have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         had     been  loved,  1.  We     had  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved,  2.  You    had  been  loved, 

3.  He      had     been  loved ;  3.  They  had  been  loved. 

First-future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  I         shall  be  loved,  1.  We     shall  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt   be  loved,  2.  You   will  be  loved, 

3.  He     will   be  loved ;  3.  They  will  be  loved. 

Second-future  Tense. 

Singular.     1.  I         shall  have  been  loved^ 

2.  Thou  wilt    have  been  loved, 

3.  He      will   have  been  loved  ; 

Plural.        1.  We     shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  You    will    have  been  loved, 

3.  They  will   have  been  loved. 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may     be  loved,  1.  We     may  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  loved,  2.  You   may  be  loved, 

3.  He      may     be. loved;  3 X They  may  be  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might     be  loved,  1.  We     might  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved,  2.  You    might  be  loved, 

3.  He      might     be  loved  ;          3.  They  might  be  loved. 


100 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.      1.  I         may     have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved, 

3.  He      may     have  been  loved  ; 

Plural.         1.  We    may  have  been  loved, 

2.  You    may  have  been  loved, 

3.  They  may  have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.     1.  I         might     have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved, 

3.  He      might     have  been  loved ; 

Plural.        1.  We     might  have  been  loved, 

2.  You   might  have  been  loved, 

3.  They  might  have  been  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  If  I        be  loved,  1.  If  we     be  loved, 

2.  If  thou  be  loved,  2.  If  you  be  loved, 

3.  If  he      be  loved ;  3.  If  they  be  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        were  loved,  1.  If  we     were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved,  2.  If  you  were  loved, 

3.  If  he      were  loved  ;  3.  If  they  were  loved. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2.  Be  [thou]  loved,  or  Do  thou  be  loved. 

Plural.       2.  Be  [ye  or  you]  loved,  or  Do  you  be  loved. 


I.  The  Imperfect. 
Being  loved. 


PARTICIPLES. 

2.  The  Perfect. 
Loved. 


3.  The  Preperfect 
Having  been  loved. 


VERBS.  101 

Form  of  Negation. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  negatively  by  placing  the  adverb  not 
after  it,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary  ;  but  the  infinitive  and  par- 
ticiples take  the  negative  first : — 

INFINITIVE.  Not  to  love,  Not  to  have  loved.  INDICATIVE.  I  love  not, 
or  I  do  not  love,  I  loved  not,  or  I  did  not  love,  I  have  not  loved,  I  had 
not  loved,  I  shall  not  love,  I  shall  not  have  loved.  POTENTIAL.  I  may, 
can,  or  must  not  love ;  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  not  love.  I 
may,  can,  or  must  not  have  loved  ;  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  not 
have  loved.  SUBJUNCTIVE.  If  I  love  not,  If  I  loved  not.  PARTICIPLES. 
Not  loving,  Not  loved,  Not  having  loved. 

Form  of  Question. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively,  in  the  indicative  and 
potential  moods,  by  placing  the  nominative  after  it,  or  after 
the  first  auxiliary  ;  as, 

INDICATIVE.  Do  I  love  ?  Did  I  love  ?  Have  I  loved  ?  Had  I  loved  ? 
Shall  I  love  ?  Shall  I  have  loved  ?  POTENTIAL.  May,  can,  or  must  I 
love  ?  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  I  love  ?  May,  can,  or  must  I  have 
loved  ?  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  I  have  loved  ? 

Form  of  Question  with  Negation. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively  and  negatively,  in  the 
indicative  and  potential  moods,  by  placing  the  nominative  and 
the  adverb  not  after  the  verb,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary  ;  as, 

INDICATIVE.  Do  I  not  love  ?  Did  I  not  love  ?  Have  I  not  loved  ?  Had 
I  not  loved  ?  Shall  I  not  love  ?  Shall  I  not  have  loved  ?  POTENTIAL. 
May,  can,  or  must  I  not  love  ?  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  I  not 
love  ?  May,  can,  or  must  I  not  have  loved  ?  Might,  could,  would,  or 
should  I  not  have  loved  ? 

Irregular  Verbs. 

An  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not  form  the  preterit 
and  perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed  ;  as,  see,  saw,  seeing, 
seen. 

OBS.  1. — When  the  verb  ends  in  a  sharp  consonant,  t  is  sometimes  im- 
properly substituted  for  ed,  making  the  preterit  and  the  perfect  parti- 
ciple irregular  in  spelling,  when  they  are  not  so  in  sound  ;  as,  distrest 
for  distressed,  tost  for  tossed,  mixt  for  mixed,  crackt  for  cracked. 


102 


ETYMOLOGY. 


OBS.  2. — When  the  rerb  ends  with  a  smooth  consonant,  the  substitu- 
tion of  t  for  ed  produces  an  irregularity  in  sound,  as  well  as  in  writing. 
In  some  such  irregularities,  the  poets  are  indulged  for  the  sake  of  rhyme ; 
but  the  best  speakers  and  writers  of  prose  prefer  the  regular  form  wher- 
ever good  use  has  sanctioned  it :  thus,  learned  is  better  than  learnt ; 
burned,  than  burnt;  penned,  than  pent;  absorbed,  than  abwrpt;  speUed, 
than  spelt;  smelted,  than  snult. 

OBS.  3. — The  following  alphabetical  list  exhibits  the  simple  irregular 
verbs,  as  they  are  now  generally  used.  In  this  list,  and  also  in  that  of  the 
redundant  verbs,  those  preterits  and  participles  which  are  supposed  to 
be  preferable,  and  best  supported  by  authorities,  are  placed  first 

List  of  the  Irregular  Verbs. 


AVM* 

Preterit. 

Imp.  Participle. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Attda, 

abode, 

abiding, 

abode. 

ArisB, 

•MB, 

arising, 

arisen. 

Be, 

was, 

being, 

been. 

Bear. 

bore  or  bare, 

bearing, 

borne  or  born.* 

Brut. 

be* 

beating, 

beat  or  beaten. 

Bajfe, 

began, 

beginning, 

begun. 

Behold, 

beheld, 

beholding, 

beheld. 

Beseech, 

besought, 

beseeching, 

besought 

Beset, 

beset, 

besetting, 

beset 

Bid, 

bid  or  bade, 

bidding, 

bid  or  bidden. 

Bide, 

bode, 

biding, 

bode. 

Bind, 

bound, 

binding, 

bound. 

Bite, 

bit, 

biting, 

bitten  or  bit. 

Bted, 

bM, 

bleeding, 

bled. 

Blow. 

Mew. 

blowing, 

blown. 

Break. 

broke, 

breaking, 

broken. 

feted, 

bred, 

breeding, 

bred. 

Bring, 

brought, 

bringing, 

brought. 

Burst, 

burst, 

bursting, 

burst. 

Buy. 

bought, 

buying, 

bought 

Cast, 

cast, 

easting, 

cast 

Chide, 

chid, 

chiding, 

chidden  or  chid 

Ckooae, 

chose, 

choosing, 

chosen. 

Oe*ve,t 

cleft  or  clove, 

cleaving, 

cleft  or  cloven. 

Cling, 

clung, 

clinging, 

clung. 

*     Ttr.f^t  c^rm{«AC-  ffim'ft^it  •     >^.*-,i   cIcmi-Rac!  hfva/nht   fnrljl 

TERBS. 


103 


Irregular 

Verbs  —  Continued. 

Present. 

Preterit. 

Imp.  Participle. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Come, 

came, 

coming, 

come. 

Cost, 

cost, 

costing, 

cost. 

Creep, 

crept, 

creeping, 

crept 

Cut, 

cut, 

cutting, 

cut. 

Deal, 

dealt, 

dealing, 

dealt. 

Do, 

did, 

doing, 

done. 

Draw, 

drew, 

drawing, 

drawn. 

Drink, 

drank, 

drinking, 

drunk  or  drank. 

Drive, 

drove, 

driving, 

driven. 

Eat, 

6at  or  ate, 

eating, 

eaten. 

Fall, 

fell, 

falling, 

fallen. 

Feed, 

fed, 

feeding, 

fed. 

Feel, 

felt, 

feeling, 

felt 

Fight, 

fought, 

fighting, 

fought 

Find, 

found, 

finding, 

found. 

Flee, 

fled, 

fleeing, 

fled. 

Fling, 

flung, 

flinging, 

flung. 

Fly, 

flew, 

flying, 

flown. 

Forbear, 

forbore, 

forbearing, 

forborne. 

Forsake, 

forsook, 

forsaking, 

forsaken. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

freezing, 

frozen. 

Get, 

got, 

getting, 

got  or  gotten. 

Give, 

gave, 

giving, 

given. 

Go, 

went, 

going, 

gone. 

Grind, 

ground, 

grinding, 

ground. 

Grow, 

grew, 

growing, 

grown. 

Have, 

had, 

having, 

had. 

Hear, 

heard, 

hearing, 

heard. 

Hide, 

hid, 

hiding, 

hidden  or  hid. 

Hit, 

hit, 

hitting, 

hit. 

Hold, 

held, 

holding, 

held  or  holden. 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

hurting, 

hurt 

Keep, 

kept, 

keeping, 

kept 

Know, 

knew, 

knowing, 

known. 

Lay, 

laid, 

laying, 

laid. 

Lead, 

led, 

leading, 

led. 

Leave, 

left, 

leaving, 

left 

Lend, 

lent, 

lending, 

lent 

Let, 

let, 

letting, 

let. 

Lie  (to  rest), 

lay, 

lying, 

lain. 

Lose, 

lost, 

losing, 

lost 

104 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Irregular  Verbs.— Continued 


Present. 

Preterit.                 Imp.  Participle. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Make, 

made, 

making, 

made. 

Mean, 

meant, 

meaning, 

meant. 

Meet, 

met, 

meeting, 

met. 

Outdo, 

outdid, 

outdoing, 

outdone. 

Fay, 

paid, 

paying, 

paid. 

Put, 

put, 

putting, 

put. 

Read, 

read, 

reading, 

r6ad. 

Rend, 

rent, 

rending, 

rent. 

Rid, 

rid, 

ridding, 

rid. 

Ride, 

rode, 

riding, 

ridden. 

Ring, 

rang  or  rung, 

ringing, 

rung. 

Rise, 

rose, 

rising, 

risen. 

Run, 

ran  or  run, 

running, 

run. 

Say, 

said, 

saying, 

said. 

See, 

saw, 

seeing, 

seen. 

Seek, 

sought, 

seeking, 

sought 

Sell, 

sold, 

selling, 

sold. 

Send, 

sent, 

sending, 

sent. 

Set, 

set, 

setting, 

set. 

Shake, 

shook, 

shaking, 

shaken. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shedding, 

shed. 

Shoe, 

shod, 

shoeing, 

shod. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shooting, 

shot 

Shut, 

shut, 

shutting, 

shut 

Shred, 

shred, 

shredding, 

shred. 

Shrink, 

shrunk  or  shrank, 

shrinking, 

shrunk  or  shrun)  t?n. 

Sing, 

sung  or  sang, 

singing, 

sung. 

Sink, 

sunk  or  sank, 

sinkiner, 

sunk. 

Sit, 

sat, 

sitting, 

sat. 

Slay, 

slew, 

slaying, 

slain. 

Sleep, 

slept, 

sleeping, 

slept. 

Slide, 

slid, 

sliding, 

slid  or  slidden. 

Sling, 

slung, 

slinging, 

slung. 

Slink, 

slunk, 

slinking, 

slunk. 

Smite, 

smote, 

smiting, 

smitten  or  smh 

Speak, 

spoke, 

speaking, 

spoken. 

Spend, 

spent, 

spending, 

spent 

Spin, 

spun, 

spinning, 

spun. 

Spit, 

spit, 

spitting, 

spit  or  spitten 

Spread, 

spread, 

spreading, 

spread. 

Spring, 

sprung  or  sprang, 

springing, 

sprung. 

VEEBS. 


105 


Irregular 

Verbs.—  Continued. 

Present. 

Preterit. 

Imp.  Participle. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Stand, 

stood, 

standing, 

stood. 

Steal, 

stole, 

stealing, 

stolen. 

Stick, 

stuck, 

sticking, 

stuck. 

Sting, 

stung, 

stinging, 

stung. 

Stride, 

strode, 

striding, 

stridden  or  strid. 

Strike, 

struck, 

striking, 

struck  or  stricken. 

Strive, 

strove, 

striving, 

striven. 

Sweep, 

swept, 

sweeping, 

swept. 

Swear, 

swore, 

swearing, 

sworn. 

Swim, 

swam, 

swimming, 

swum. 

Swing, 

swung, 

swinging, 

swung. 

Take, 

took, 

taking, 

taken. 

Teach, 

tttaght, 

teaching, 

taught. 

Tear, 

tore, 

tearing, 

torn. 

Tell, 

told, 

telling, 

told. 

Think, 

thought, 

thinking, 

thought. 

Throw, 

threw, 

throwing, 

thrown. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

thrusting, 

thrust. 

Tread, 

trod, 

treading, 

trodden  or  trod. 

Wear, 

wore, 

wearing, 

worn. 

Weave, 

wove, 

weaving, 

woven. 

Weep, 

wept, 

weeping, 

wept. 

Win, 

won, 

winning, 

won. 

Wind, 

wound, 

winding, 

wound. 

Wring, 

irrung, 

wringing, 

wrung. 

Write, 

wrote, 

writing, 

written. 

List  of  the 

Redundant  Verbs. 

Present. 

Preterit. 

Imperf.  Participle. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Awake, 

awoke  or  awaked, 

awaking, 

awoke  or  awaked." 

Belay, 

belaid  or  belayed, 

belaying, 

belaid  or  belayed. 

Bend, 

bent  or  bended, 

bending, 

bent  or  bended. 

Bereave, 

bereft  or  bereaved,          bereaving, 

bereft  or  bereaved. 

Bet, 

betted  or  bet, 

betting, 

betted  or  bet 

Blend, 

blended  or  blent, 

blending, 

blended  or  blent. 

Bless, 

blessed  or  blest, 

blessing, 

blessed  or  blest. 

Build, 

built  or  builded, 

building, 

built  or  builded. 

Burn, 

burned  or  burnt, 

burning, 

burned  or  burnt. 

Catch,, 

caught  or  catched 

catching, 

caught  or  catched. 

106 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Redundant  Verbs. — Continued. 


Present.  Preterit.        Imperf.  Participle. 

Clothe,  clothed  or  clad,  clothing, 

Crow,  crew  or  crowed,  crowing, 

Curse,  cursed  or  curst,  cursing, 

Dare,  dared  or  durst,  daring, 

Dig,  dug  or  digged,  digging, 

Dream,  dreamed  or  dreamt,  dreamjng, 

Dress,  dressed  or  drest,  dressing, 

Dwell,  dwelt  or  dwelled,  dwelling, 

Geld,  gelded  or  gelt,  gelding, 

Gild,  gilded  or  gilt,  gilding, 

Gird,  girded  or  girt,  girding, 

Grave,  graved,  graving, 

Hang,  -     hanged  or  hung,  hanging, 

Heave,  heaved  or  hove,  heaving, 

Hew,  hewed,  hewing, 

Kneel,  knelt  or  kneeled,  kneeling, 

Knit,  knit  or  knitted,  knitting, 

Lade,  laded,  lading, 

Lean,  leaned  or  leant,  leaning, 

Leap,  leaped  or  leapt,  leaping, 

Learn,  learned  or  learnt,  learning, 

Light,  lighted  or  lit,  lighting, 

Mow,  mowed,  mowing, 

Pen  (to  coop),    penned  or  pent,  penning, 

Quit,  quitted  or  quit,  quitting, 

Rap,  rapped,  rapping, 

Reave,  reft  or  reaved,  reaving, 

Rive,  rived,  riving, 

Saw,  sawed,  sawing, 

Seethe,  seethed  or  sod,  seething, 

Shape,  shaped,  shaping, 

Snave,  shaved,  shaving, 

Shear,  sheared  or  shore,  shearing, 

Shine,  shone  or  shined,  shining, 

Show,  showed,  showing, 

Slit,  slit  or  slitted,  slitting, 

Smell,  smelled  or  smelt,  smelling, 

Sow,  sowed,  sowing, 

Speed,  sped  or  speeded,  speeding, 

Spell,  spelled  or  spelt,  spelling, 

Spill,  spilled  or  spilt,  spilling, 


Perfect  Participle. 
clothed  or  clad, 
crowed. 

cursed  or  curst, 
dared. 

dug  or  digged, 
dreamed  or  dreamt 
dressed  or  drest. 
dwelt  or  dwelled, 
gelded  or  gelt, 
gilded  or  gilt, 
girded  or  girt, 
graven  or  graved, 
hanged  or  hung, 
heaved  or  hoven. 
hewed  or  hewn, 
knelt  or  kneeled, 
knit  or  knitted, 
laded  or  laden, 
leaned  or  leant, 
leaped  or  leapt, 
learned  or  learnt, 
lighted  or  lit. 
mowed  or  mown, 
penned  or  pent, 
quitted  or  quit, 
rapped  or  rapt, 
reft  or  reaved. 
riven  or  rived, 
sawed  or  sawn, 
seethed  or  sodden, 
shaped  or  shapen. 
shaved  or  shaven, 
sheared  or  shorn, 
shone  or  shined. 
shown  or  showed, 
slit  or  slitted. 
smelled  or  smelt, 
sown  or  sowed, 
sped  or  speeded, 
spelled  or  spelt, 
spilled  or  spilt. 


VERBS. 


107 


Redundant  Verbs.— Continued. 

Preterit.          Imperf.  Participle.     Perfect  Participle. 


Present. 

Split,  split  or  splitted,  splitting, 

Spoil,  spoiled  or  spoilt,  spoiling, 

Stave,  staved  or  stove,  staving, 

Stay,  staid  or  stayed,  staying, 

String,  strung,  stringing, 

Strow,  strowed,  strewing, 

Sweat,  sweat  or  sweated,  sweating, 

Swell,  swelled,  swelling, 

Thrive,  throve  or  thrived,  thriving, 

Wax,  waxed,  waxing, 

Wet,  wet  or  wetted,  wetting, 

Wont,  wont,  wonting, 

Work,  wdrked  or  wrought,  working, 


split  or  splitted. 
spoiled  or  spoilt, 
staved  or  stove, 
staid  or  stayed, 
strung  or  stringed, 
strowed  or  strown. 
sweat  or  sweated, 
swelled  or  swollen, 
thriven  or  thrived, 
waxed  o?'  waxen, 
wet  or  wetted, 
wont  or  wonted, 
worked  or  wrought. 


Defective  Verbs. 

When  any  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  wanting,  the 
tenses  usually  derived  from  those  parts  are,  of  course,  also 
wanting.  All  the  auxiliaries,  except  do,  be,  and  have,  are 
defective  ;  but,  as  auxiliaries,  they  become  parts  of  other 
verbs,  and  do  not  need  the  parts  which  are  technically  said  to 
be  "wanting." 

OBS.  1. — The  following  list  contains  all  our  defective  verbs,  except 
methinks,  with  its  preterit  methought,  which  is  not  only  defective,  but 
impersonal  and  irregular.  It  is  equivalent  to  it  thinks  me. 


Present. 

Beware, 

Can, 

May, 

Must, 

Ought, 


List  of  the  D« 

Preterit. 

ifective  Verbs 

Present. 
Shall, 
Will, 
Quoth, 
Wis, 
Wit, 

could, 
might, 
must, 
ought. 

Preterit. 
should, 
would, 
quoth. 


wot. 


OBS.  2. — Beware  is  not  used  in  the  indicative  present.  Must  is  never 
varied  in  termination.  Ought  is  invariable,  except  in  the  solemn  style, 
where  we  find  o  tightest.  Wfll  is  sometimes  used  as  a  principal  verb,  and 


108  ETYMOLOGY. 

as  such  is  regular  and  complete.  Quoth  is  used  only  in  ludicrous  Ian, 
guage,  and  is  not  varied.  It  seems  to  be  properly  the  third  person  sin^ 
gular  of  the  present,  for  it  ends  in  th  ;  and  quod  was  formerly  used  aa 
the  preterit. 

OBS.  3. —  WiSj  preterit  wist,  to  know,  to  think,  to  suppose,  to  imagine, 
appears  to  be  now  nearly  or  quite  obsolete ;  but  it  seems  proper  to  ex- 
plain it,  because  it  is  found  in  the  Bible  ;  as,  "I  wist  not,  brethren, 
that  he  was  the  high  priest." — Acts.  Wit,  to  know,  and.' wot,  knew,  are 
also  obsolete  except  in  the  phrase  to  wit ;  which,  being  taken  abstractly, 
is  equivalent  to  the  adverb  namely,  or  to  the  phrase,  that  is  to  say. 

OBS.  4. — Some  verbs,  from  the  nature  of  the  subject  to  which  they 
refer,  can  be  used  only  in  the  third  person  singular :  as,  It  rains  ;  it 
snows  ;  it  freezes  ;  it  hails  ;  it  lightens  ;  it  thunders.  These  have  been 
called  impersonal  verbs.  The  neuter  pronoun  it,  which  is  always  used 
before  them,  does  not  seem  to  represent  any  noun,  but,  in  connection 
with  the  verb,  merely  to  express  a  state  of  things, 

Exercises. 

1.  State  the  dosses  and  modifications  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : — 

The  house  might  have  been  built  in  time.  The  ship  was  wrecked. 
He  should  have  finished  his  task.  The  young  lady  has  been  well  edu* 
cated.  What  has  been  done  cannot  be  repaired.  I  will  go  out  this 
afternoon,  unless  it  rain.  The  horse  must  be  shod,  or  he  will  become 
lame.  They  could  not  have  known  what  they  were  doing.  The  mer- 
chant is  said  to  have  failed.  The  boy  fell  into  the  water,  and  he  would 
have  been  drowned,  if  he  had  been  unable  to  swim.  He  must  have 
been  mad  to  have  committed  the  rash  act.  O,  how  happy  we  might 
have  been.  I  will  call  upon  him,  if  he  desire  it.  I  will  go,  and 
you  shall  not  prevent  me.  I  shall  fail,  for  no  one  will  aid  me.  I 
should  like  to  accept  the  invitation.  He  would  be  willing  to  pay  for 
the  privilege.  I  would  not  do  it,  if  I  could.  You  shall  do  it,  for  I  will 
compel  you.  You  will  not  commit  so  base  an  act !  If  it  snow  to-mor^ 
row,  I  cannot  go.  You  ought  to  have  tried  to  oblige  your  friend.  Be- 
ware, lest  your  anger  overcome  you. 

2.  Write  sentences,  each  containing  an  active  verb,  transitive  or  intran* 
Mtive,  as  directed  in  thefoUowing  : — 

In  the  indicative  mood,  perfect  tense ;  indicative  pluperfect ;  sub- 
junctive present ;  subjunctive  imperfect ;  potential  present ;  potential 


VERBS.  109 

perfect ;  infinitive  present ;  infinitive  perfect ;  indicative  first  future ; 
potential  pluperfect ;  imperative  ;  indicative  second  future ;  potential 
imperfect ;  indicative  imperfect. 

3.  Write  sentences,  each  containing  a  passive  verb  with  the  same  modifi- 
cations as  in  the  above. 


X.— PARTICIPLES. 

A  participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  partici- 
pating the  properties  of  a  verb,  and  of  an  adjective  or  a 
noun ;  and  is  generally  formed  by  adding  wg,  d,  or  ed  to 
the  verb.  ^ 

OBS. — Participles  retain  tlie  essential  meaning  of  their  verbs ;  and, 
like  verbs,  are  either  active-transitive,  active-intransitive,  passive,  or 
neuter,  in  their  signification.  For  this  reason  many  have  classed  them 
with  the  verbs  ;  but  their  formal  meaning  is  obviously  different.  They 
convey  no  affirmation,  but  usually  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  like  ad- 
jectives, except  when  they  are  joined  with  auxiliaries  to  form  the  com- 
pound tenses ;  or  when  they  have  in.  part  the  nature  of  substantives, 
like  the  Latin  gerunds. 

Classes. 

English  verbs  have  severally  three  participles :  the  im- 
perfect, the  perfect,  and  the  preperfect. 

OBS. — Various  names  have  been  given  to  the  participles ;  as  their 
order  is  undisputed,  they  may  be  conveniently  called  the  First,  the 
Second,  and  the  Third. 

The  imperfect  participle  is  that  which  ends  com 
inonly  in  ing,  and  implies  a  continuance  of  the  being, 
action,  or  passion ;  as,  loving  (active),  being  loved  (passive). 

The  perfect  participle  is  that  which  ends  com- 
monly in  ed  or  en,  and  implies  a  completion  of  the  being, 
action,  or  passion  ;  as,  loved  (passive). 

OBS. — The  participle  in  ing  represents  the  action  or  state  as  continuing 
and  ever  incomplete  ;  it  is  therefore  rightly  termed  the  imperfect  par- 


110  ETYMOLOGY. 

ticiple :  whereas  the  participle  in  ed  always  has  reference  to  the  action 
as  done  and  complete;  and  is  by  proper  contradistinction  called  the 
perfect  participle. 

OBS. — The  perfect  participle  is  essentially  passive.  Hence,  in  the  case 
of  intransitive  and  neuter  verbs,  this  part  of  the  verb  cannot  be  used  by 
itself. 

The  preperfect  participle  is  that  which  takes  the 
sign  having )  and  implies  a  previous  completion  of  the  being, 
action,  or  passion ;  as,  having  loved  (active),  having  been 
loved  (passive). 

OBS. — If  this  participle  is  to  be  named  with  reference  to  its  meaning, 
there  is  perhaps  no  better  term  for  it  than  the  epithet  preperfect, — 
a  word  which  explains  itself,  like  prepaid  or  prerequisite.  Of  the  many 
other  names,  the  most  correct  one  is  pluperfect, — which  is  a  term  of 
very  nearly  the  same  meaning.  Xot  because  this  compound  is  really  of 
the  pluperfect  tense,  but  because  it  always  denotes  being,  action,  or  pas- 
sion, that  is,  or  was,  or  will  be,  completed  before  the  doing  or  being  of 
something  else ;  and,  of  course,  when  the  latter  thing  is  represented  as 
past,  the  participle  must  correspond  to  the  pluperfect  tense  of  its  verb  ; 
as,  "  Having  explained  her  views,  it  was  necessary  she  should  expatiate 
on  the  vanity  and  futility  of  the  enjoyments  promised  by  Pleasure. " 
Here  having  explained  is  equivalent  to  when  she  had  explained. 

The  imperfect  participle  of  an  active  verb  is  always  formed 
by  adding  ing  to  the  radical  verb  ;  as,  look,  looking. 

The  imperfect  participle  of  a  passive  verb  is  formed  by  pre- 
fixing being  to  the  perfect  participle  ;  as,  being  loved. 

The  perfect  participle  is  regularly  formed  by  adding  d  or 
ed  to  the  radical  verb. 

Arot4^FoT  the  perfect  participles  of  irregular  verbs,  see  lists,  pp.  98-101. 

The  preperfect  participle  of  an  active  verb  is  formed  by 
prefixing  having  to  the  perfect  participle  ;  that  of  a  passive 
verb,  by  prefixing  having  been  ;  as,  having  written,  having  been 
written. 

Thus,  the  English  verb,  in  the  active  form,  has,  in  fact,  only 
two  participles — the  imperfect  and  the  preperfect ;  and  in  the 
passive,  three — the  imperfect,  the  perfect,  and  the  preperfect 


PABTICIPLES.  Ill 

Participles  may  be  separated  into  two  other  classes :  those 
which  participate  the  properties  of  a  verb  and  an  adjective, 
and  those  which  participate  the  properties  of  a  verb  and  a 
noun.  The  latter  are  sometimes  called  gerundives. 

The  following  are  examples  of  each : — 

First  Class — Verb  and  Adjective. 

He  came  running  very  swiftly. 
She,  dying,  gave  it  me. 
The  enemy  having  been  defeated  fled. 
She  stood  wringing  her  hands. 
Error  wounded  writhes  in  pain. 
The  Justice  read  amused,  amazed. 

Second  Class.— Verb  and  Noun.    (GERUNDIVES.) 

She  is  fond  of  reading  history. 

After  having  paid  the  money  he  retired. 

He  was  released  on  giving  bail. 

In  keeping  His  commandments  there  is  great  reward. 

Before  leaving  the  city  he  paid  his  debts. 

OBS.  1  — Participles  often  become  adjectives,  and  are  construed  before 
nouns  to  denote  quality.  The  terms  so  converted  form  the  class  of  par- 
ticipial adjectives.  Words  of  a  participial  form  may  be  regarded  as  adjec- 
tives :  1.  When  they  reject  the  idea  of  time,  and  denote  something 
customary  or  habitual,  rather  than  a  transient  act  or  state  ;  as,  A  lying 
rogue,  i.  e. ,  one  addicted  to  lying.  2.  When  they  admit  adverbs  of  com- 
parison ;  as,  A  more  learned  man.  3.  When  they  are  compounded  with 
something  that  does  not  belong  to  the  verb  ;  as,  unfeeling,  nnfelt.  Thery 
is  no  verb  to  unfeel ;  therefore,  no  participle  unfeeling  or  unfelL  Ad- 
jectives are  generally  placed  before  their  nouns ;  participles,  after  them. 

OBS.  2. — To  distinguish  the  participle  from  the  participial  noun,  the 
learner  should  observe  the  following  four  things:  1.  Nouns  take  articles 
and  adjectives  before  them  ;  participles,  as  such,  do  not.  2.  Nouns  may 
govern  the  possessive  case,  but  not  the  objective ;  participles  may  govern 
the  objective  case,  but  not  the  possessive.  3.  Nouns  may  be  the  subjects 
or  objects  of  verbs ;  participles  cannot.  4.  Participial  nouns  express 
actions  as  things ;  participles  refer  actions  to  their  agents  or  recipients. 


112  ETYMOLOGY. 

Exercises. 

1.  Write  the  participles  of  the  verbs  given  below  in  the  following  form  : 
Write 


Active. 
Imperfect.      Writing. 

Perfect.  

Preperfect.     Having  written. 


Passive. 
Being  written. 
Written. 
Having  been  written- 


Make,  give,  seek,  speak,  hurt,  feed,  wear,  smite,  swim,  know,  think, 
tell,  work,  clothe,  catch,  teach,  tread,  dream,  kneel,  shoe,  ride,  put,  lie, 
lay,  say,  sit,  set,  spend,  steal. 

2.  Write  sentences  eacJi  containing  a  participle  derived  from  one  or 
more  of  these  verbs. 

3.  Write  five  sentences  each  containing  a  participle  of  the  second  class. 


XI.— ADVERBS. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  participle,  an 
adjective,  or  another  adverb ;  and  generally  expresses 
time,  place,  degree,  or  manner. 

OBS.  1. — Adverbs  briefly  express  what  would  otherwise  require  seV 
eral  words ;  as,  Now,  for  at  this  time — Here,  for  in  this  place —  Very, 
for  in  a  high  degree — Diligently,  for  in  an  industrious  manner. 

OBS.  2. — There  are  several  combinations  of  short  words  which  are 
used  adverbially,  and  which,  as  idiomatic  phrases,  it  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary or  possible  to  separate  in  analysis  or  parsing ;  as,  Not  at  aU,  at 
length,  in  vain. 

Classes. 

Adverbs  may  be  reduced  to  four  general  classes ; 
namely,  adverbs  of  time,  of  place,  of  degree,  and  of 
manner. 

Adverbs  of  time  are  those  which  answer  to  the 
question,  When  ?  How  long  ?  How  soon  ?  or  How  often  f 
including  these  which  ask. 


ADVERBS.  113 

OBS. — Adverbs  of  time  may  be  subdivided  as  follows: — 

1.  Of  time  present ;  as,  Now,  yet,  to-day,  presently,  instantly,  imme* 
diately. 

2.  Of  time  past;   as,  Already,  yesterday,  lately,  recently,  anciently, 
heretofore,  hitherto,  since,  ago,  erewhile. 

3.  Of  time  to  come  ;  as,  To-morrow,  hereafter,  henceforth,  by-and-by, 
soon,  erelong. 

4.  Of  time  relative;  as,  When,  then,  before,  after,  while  or  whilst, 
till,  until,  seasonably,  betimes,  early,  late. 

5.  Of  time  absolute ;   as,  Always,  ever,  never,  aye,  eternally,  per- 
petually, continually. 

6.  Of  time  repeated ;  as,  Often,  oft,  again,  occasionally,  frequently, 
sometimes,  seldom,  rarely,  now-and-then,  daily,  weekly,  monthly,  yearly, 
once,  twice,  thrice,  or  three  times,  etc. 

7.  Of  the  ordeirof  time ;  as,  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  fourthly,  etc. 

Adverbs  of  place  are  those  which  answer  to  the 
question,  Where?  Whither ?  Whence?  or  Whereabout? 
including  these  which  ask. 

OBS. — Adverbs  of  place  may  be  subdivided  as  follows: — 

1.  Of  place  in  which ;  as,  "Where,  here,  there,  yonder,  above,  below, 
about,  around,  somewhere,  anywhere,  elsewhere,  everywhere,   nowhere, 
wherever,  within,  without,  whereabout,  hereabout,  thereabout. 

2.  Of  place  to  which ;  as,  Whither,  hither,  thither,  in,  up,  down,  back, 
forth,  inwards,  upwards,  downwards,  backwards,  forwards. 

3.  Of  place  from  which  ;  as,  Whence,  hence,  thence,  away,  out. 

4.  Of  the  order  of  place  ;  as,  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  fourthly,  etc. 

Adverbs  of  degree  are  those  which  answer  to  the 
question,  How  much  ?  How  little  ?  or,  to  the  idea  of  more 
or  less. 

OBS. — Adverbs  of  degree  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : — 

1.  Of  excess  in  abundance :  as,  Much,  too,  very,  greatly,  far,  besides  ; 
chiefly,  principally,  mainly,  generally  ;  entirely,  full,  fully,  completely, 
perfectly,  wholly,  totally,  altogether,  all,  quite,  clear,  stark;  exceedingly, 
excessively,  extravagantly,  intolerably  ;  immeasurably,  inconceivably,  in- 
finitely. 

2.  Of  equality  or  sufficiency  ;  as,  Enough,  sufficiently,  equally,  so,  att 
wen. 

8 


114  ETYMOLOGY. 

3.  Of  deficiency  or  abatement ;  as,  Little,  scarcely,  hardly,  merely, 
barely,  only,  but,  partly,  partiaUy,  nearly,  almost. 

4.  Of  quantity  in  the  abstract ;  as,  How,  (meaning,  in  what  degree, } 
however,  howsoever,   everso,   something,  nothing,   anything,  and  other 
nouns  of  quantity  used  adverbially. 

Adverbs  of  manner  are  those  which  answer  to  the 
question,  How  f  or,  by  affirming,  denying,  or  doubting, 
show  how  a  subject  is  regarded. 

OBS. — Adverbs  of  manner  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : — 

1.  Of  manner  from  quality;  as,   Well,   ill,  wisely,  foolishly,  justly, 
quickly,  and  many  others  formed  by  adding  ly  to  adjectives  of  quality. 

2.  Of  affirmation  or  assent ;  as,  Verily,  truly,  indeed,  surely,  certainly, 
doubtless,  undoubtedly,  certes,  forsooth. 

3.  Of  negation ;  as,  No,  nay,  not,  nowise. 

4.  Of  doubt ;  as,  Perhaps,  haply,  possibly,  perchance,  peradventure, 
may-be. 

5.  Of  mode  or  way ;  as,  Thus,  so,  how,  somehow,  however,  howsoever, 
like,  eUe,  otherwise,  across,  together,  apart,  asunder,  namely,  particularly, 
necessarily. 

6.  Of  cause  ;  as,  Why,  wherefore,  therefore. 

Conjunctive  Adverbs. 

Adverbs  sometimes  perform  the  office  of  conjunctions, 
and  serve  to  connect  the  clauses  of  a  sentence,  as  well  as 
to  express  some  circumstance  of  time,  place,  degree,  or  man- 
ner:  adverbs  that  are  so  used,  are  called  conjunctive 
adverbs. 

OBS.  1. — A  conjunctive  adverb  introducing  a  dependent  clause  re- 
lates to  the  predicate  verb  in  that  clause,  while  the  clause  itself  relates 
to  the  predicate  verb  of  the  principal  clause.  The  words  most  frequently 
used  in  this  way  are  the  following :  after,  as,  before,  since,  till,  until, 
when,  where,  while  or  whilst.  Because,  answering  to  the  question  why, 
wherefore,  for  what  reason  (each  of  which  is  adverbial),  may  be  also  re- 
garded as  a  conjunctive  adverb.  There  are  other  words,  as  also,  besides, 
hence,  however,  therefore,  etc. ,  that  imply  a  logical  connection  of  sentences 
or  propositions  j  but  they  are  not,  grammatically,  connective  words. 


ADVERBS.  115 

OBS.  2. — The  word  even,  generally  considered  an  adverb,  as  very  fre- 
quently used,  seems  to  perform  the  office  of  no  part  of  speech,  but  to  be 
employed  merely  to  give  emphasis  to  the  particular  word  or  phrase  which 
it  precedes  ;  as,  "  Even  the  great  are  not  free  from  vice." — "  I,  even  I 
only,  am  left." 

OBS.  3. — The  words  yes  and  yea,  expressing  a  single  affirmation,  and 
no  and  nay,  expressing  a  simple  negation,  are  always  independent. 
They  generally  answer  a  question,  and  are  equivalent  to  a  whole  sen- 
tence. They  cannot,  therefore,  be  properly  considered  as  adverbs,  but 
rather  as  affirmative  or  negative  particles.  The  word  amen,  meaning 
so  let  it  be,  is  of  a  similar  character  and  usage. 

Modifications. 

Adverbs  have  no  modifications,  except  that  a  few  are 
compared  after  the  manner  of  adjectives  :  as,  Soon,  sooner, 
soonest ; — often,  oftener,  oftenest  • — long,  longer,  longest. 

The  following  are  irregularly  compared :  well,  better,  best ; 
badly  or  ill,  worse,  worst  ;  little,  less,  least ;  much,  more,  most  ; 
far,  farther,  farthest ;  forth,  further,  furthest. 

OBS. — Most  adverbs  of  quality  will  admit  the  comparative  adverbs 
more  and  most,  less  and  least,  before  them :  as,  wisely,  more  wisely,  most 
wisely  ;  culpably,  less  culpably,  least  culpably. 

Exercises  in  Construction. 

1.  Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  an  adverb  of  manner. 

2.  Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  an  adverb  of  place. 

3.  Write  Jive  sentences,  each  containing  an  adverb  of  time. 

4.  Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  an  adverb  of  degree. 

o.  Write  sentences  each  containing  one  of  the  following  adverbs : — 

Always,  whether,  seldom,  often,  truly,  chiefly,  seldom,  patiently, 
earnestly,  very,  move,  how,  indeed,  first,  secondly,  perhaps,  doubtless, 
however,  whence,  hither,  yesterday,  by-and-by,  hitherto,  heretofore, 
somewhere,  anywhere. 

6.  Write  complex  sentences,  each  consisting  of  a  principal  and  depend- 
ent clause  connected  by  one  of  the  following  conjunctive  adverbs  : — 
When,  while,  where,  till,  since,  before,  after,  as, 


116  ETYMOLOGY. 

XII.-CONJUNCTIONS. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words  or 
sentences  in  construction,  and  to  show  the  dependence  of 
the  terms  so  connected. 

Classes. 

Conjunctions  are  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
copulative  and  disjunctive;  and  some  of  each  of 
these  sorts  are  corresponsive. 

A  copulative  conjunction  is  a  conjunction  that 
denotes  an  addition,  a  cause,  or  a  supposition :  as,  "  He  a/ad 
I  shall  not  dispute;  for,  if  he  has  any  choice,  1  shall 
readily  grant  it." 

A  disjunctive  conjunction  is  a  conjunction  that 
denotes  opposition  of  meaning ;  as,  "  Be  not  overcome 
[by]  evil,  but  overcome  evil  with  good." — Rom.  xii.,  21. 

The  corresponsive  conjunctions  are  those  which 
are  used  in  pairs,  so  that  one  refers  or  answers  to  another ; 
as,  "John  came  neither  eating  nor  drinking." — Matthew 
xi.,  18. 

The  following  are  the  principal  conjunctions  : — 

Copulative  ;  And,  as,  both,  because,  for,  if,  that,  then, 
since,  seeing,  so. 

Disjunctive  ;  Or,  nor,  either,  neither,  than,  though,  al- 
though, yet,  but,  except,  whether,  lest,  unless,  save,  notwithstanding. 

Corresponsive;  Both  —  and ;  as—as;  as  — so;  if 
— then  ;  either — or  ;  neither — nor ;  whether — or  ;  though,  or 
although — yet. 


XML-PREPOSITIONS. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  rela- 
tion of  different  things  or  thoughts  to  each  other,  and  is 
generally  placed  before  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 


DEPOSITIONS.  117 

OBS.  1. — Prepositions  are  neither  principal  parts  of  a  sentence,  nor 
are  they  adjuncts.  They  are  simply  words  used  to  express  relation. 

OBS.  2. — Prepositions  introduce  phrases  that  are  generally  used  as 
adjuncts;  as,  "A  man  of  reputation  j  "  equivalent  to,  A  reputable  man. 
— "  In  this  place  they  settled ;  "  equivalent  to,  Here  they  settled. — "  F't 
for  use,"  in  which  the  phrase  for  use  limits  the  adjective  jit.  Suci 
phrases  are  usually  called  prepositional  phrases. 

OBS.  3. — The  noun  or  pronoun  before  which  a  preposition  is  placed 
is  called  its  object,  and  the  preposition  always  expresses  the  relation 
between  its  object  and  the  word  to  which  the  prepositional  phrase  is  an 
adjunct.  Thus  in  the  examples  given  above,  of  expresses  the  relation 
between  man  and  reputation  ;  in,  between  settled  and  place;  and/0r, 

between  fit  and  use. 

<f 

List  of  the  Prepositions. 

The  following  are  the  principal  prepositions,  arranged  al- 
phabetically :  Aboard,  about,  above,  across,  after,  against,  along, 
amid  or  amidst,  among  or  amongst,  around,  at,  athwart ; — Bat- 
ing, before,  behind,  below,  beneath,  beside  or  besides,  between  or 
betwixt,  beyond,  by ; — Concerning; — Down,  during; — Ere,  ex- 
cept, excepting  ; — For,  from  ; — In,  into  ; —  Mid  or  midst ;  — 
Notwithstanding  ; — Of,  off,  on,  over,  over  thwart ; — Past,  pend- 
ing ;  —  Regarding,  respecting,  round  ;  —  Since  ;  —  Through, 
throughout,  till,  to,  touching,  toward  or  towards  ; —  Undert  un- 
derneath, until,  unto,  up,  upon  ; —  With,  within,  without. 

OBS.  1. — The  words  in  the  preceding  list  are  generally  prepositions. 
But  when  any  of  them  are  employed  without  a  subsequent  term  of  rela- 
tion, they  are  either  adjectives  or  adverbs.  For,  when  it  signifies  be- 
cause, is  a  conjunction  ;  without,  when  used  for  unless,  and  notwith- 
standing, when  placed  before  a  nominative,  are  usually  referred  to  the 
class  of  conjunctions  also. 

OBS.  2. — Several  words  besides  those  contained  in  the  foregoing  list 
are  (or  have  been)  occasionally  employed  in  English  as  prepositions  ;  as, 
A  (chiefly  used  before  participles),  abaft,  adown,  afore,  aloft,  aloof, 
alongside,  anear,  anent,  aslant,  aslope,  astride,  atween,  atwfat,  by-west, 
cross,  dehors,  despite,  inside,  left-hand,  mauger,  minus,  onto,  opposite, 
outside,  per,  plus,  sans,  spite,  thorough,  traverse,  versus,  via,  withal, 
withinsifa 


118  ETYMOLOGY. 

OBS.  3. — Two  or  more  words  are  sometimes  used  as  a  ompound  prep- 
osition, being  combined  so  as  to  express  a  single  relation.  The  follow- 
ing are  examples :  as  to,  as  for,  according  to,  because  of,  out  of,  from 
out,  from  among,  from  between,  over  against. 

Exercise. 

Insert  prepositions  in  place  of  the  dashes  in  the  following  sentences  : — 

Plead the  dumb.     Qualify  thyself action study. 

Think  often  the  value time.     Be  not  dismayed 

difficulties.      Live   peace   all   men.     Keep  the 

bounds moderation.     Jest  not serious  subjects.     Take  no 

part slander.      Guilt  starts its  own  shadow.      Grudge  not 

giving.     Go  not sleep malice.     Depend  not 

the  assistance others,  but  rely yourself.     Many  fail 

grasping  at  things  their  reach.     Go  the   world  

your  eyes  open. 


XIV.— INTERJECTIONS. 

An  interjection  is  a  word  that  is  uttered  merely  to 
indicate  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind. 

OBS.  1. — Interjections  have  no  relation  to  any  other  words  in  a  sen- 
tence. They  are  neither  adjuncts  nor  principal  parts,  being  entirely 
independent.  Properly  considered,  therefore,  the  interjection  is  not  a 
part  of  speech,  or  part  of  a  sentence. 

OBS.  2. — Of  pure  interjections  but  few  are  ordinarily  admitted  into 
books.  As  words  or  sounds  of  this  kind  serve  rather  to  indicate  feeling 
than  to  express  thought,  they  seldom  have  any  truly  definable  significa- 
tion. Their  use  also  is  so  variable,  that  there  can  be  no  very  accurate 
classification  of  them.  Some  significant  words  properly  belonging  to 
other  classes,  are  ranked  with  interjections,  when  uttered  with  emotion 
and  in  an  unconnected  manner. 

List  of  the  Interjections. 

The  following  are  the  principal  interjections,  arranged  accor- 
ding to  the  emotions  which  they  are  generally  intended  to  in- 
dicate :  1.  Of  joy;  eigh  !  hey  !  io  I — 2.  Of  sorrow ;  oh  f  ah  !  hoo  ! 
alas  I  alack  I  lackaday !  welladay  !  or  welaivay  ! — 3.  Of  won- 


ANALYSIS,    PAKSITTG,    AKD  CONSTRUCTION.       119 

der  ;  heigh  !  ha  /  strange  f  indeed  ! — 4.  Of  wishing,  earnestness, 
or  vocative  address ;  (often  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the 
nominative  absolute  ;)  0! — 5.  Of  praise  ;  well-done!  good! 
bravo! — 6.  Of  surprise  with  disapproval;  whew!  hoity-toity! 
hoida  !  zounds  !  what ! — 7.  Of  pain  or  fear  ;  oh  !  ooh  !  ah  !  eh  ! 
0  dear  ! — 8.  Of  contempt ;  fudge  !  pugh  !  poh  !  pshaw  !  pish  ! 
tush  !  tut  I  humph  ! — 9.  Of  aversion  ;  foh  !  faugh  !  fie  !  fy  I 
foy! — 10.  Of  expulsion;  out!  off!  shoo!  whew!  begone! 
avaunt !  aroynt ! — 11.  Of  calling  aloud  ;  ho  !  soho  !  what-ho  ! 
hollo  !  holla  !  hallo  !  halloo  !  hoy  !  ahoy  ! — 12.  Of  exultation  ; 
ah  !  aha  I  huzza  !  hey  !  heyday  !  hurrah  ! — 13.  Of  laughter ;  ha, 
ha}  ha ;  he,  he,<>he  ;  te-hee,  te-hee. — 14.  Of  salutation  ;  welcome! 
hail !  all  hail ! — 15.  Of  calling  to  attention  ;  ho  !  lo  !  la  !  law  ! 
look  !  see  !  behold  !  hark ! — 16.  Of  calling  to  silence  ;  hush  ! 
hist  !  ivhist !  }st !  aw!  mum  ! — 17.  Of  dread  or  horror ;  oh ! 
ha !  hah !  what ! — 18.  Of  languor  or  weariness  ;  heigh-ho ! 
heigh-ho-hum  ! — 19.  Of  stopping  ;  hold  !  soft !  avast !  whoa  ! — 
20.  Of  parting ;  farewell !  adieu  !  good-by  !  good-day! — 21.  Of 
knowing  or  detecting  ;  oho  !  aha  !  ay-ay  ! — 22.  Of  interro- 
gating ;  ehf  ha?  hey? 

OBS. — Besides  these,  there  are  several  others,  too  often  heard,  which 
are  unworthy  to  be  considered  as  parts  of  a  cultivated  language.  The 
frequent  use  of  interjections  savors  more  of  thoughtlessness  than  Of  sen- 
sibility. 


XV.-ANALYSIS,  PARSING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION. 

Phrases. 

A  phrase  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more  word* 
expressing  some  relation  of  ideas,  but  no  entire  prop- 
osition ;  as,  "  Of  a  good  disposition." — "  To  be  plain  with 
you." — "  Having  loved  his  own." 

A  phrase  may  be  used  in  three  ways :  1,  as  one  of  the 
principal  parts  of  a  sentence ;  2,  as  an  adjunct ;  3,  it  may 
be  independent. 


120  ETYMOLOGY. 

An  adjunct  phrase  is  adjective,  adverbial,  or  ex- 
planatory. 

A  substantive  phrase  is  one  used  in  the  place 
of  a  noun ;  as,  "  To  do  good  is  the  duty  of  all." 

An  independent  phrase  is  one  that  is  not  related 
to,  or  connected  with,  any  word  in  the  rest  of  the  sentence; 
as,  "  He  failing,  who  shall  meet  success  ?  " — "  To  be 
plain  with  you,  I  think  you  in  fault." 

The  principal  part  of  a  phrase  is  that  upon  which 
all  the  other  parts  depend ;  as,  "  Under  every  misfortune" 
— "  Having  exhausted  every  expedient." 

Phrases  are  either  simple,  complex,  or  com- 
pound. 

A  simple  phrase  is  one  unconnected  with  any  other ; 
as,  "  Of  an  obliging  disposition." 

A  complex  phrase  is  one  that  contains  a  phrase  or 
a  clause,  as  an  adjunct  of  its  principal  part ;  as,  "  By  the 
bounty  of  heaven." — "  To  be  plain  with  you." 

A  compound  phrase  is  one  composed  of  two  or 
more  co-ordinate  phrases ;  as,  "  Stooping  down  and  looking 
in." 

Phrases  are  also  classified  as  to  their  form,  depending 
upon  the  introducing  word,  or  the  principal  part ;  thus, 

1.  A  phrase,  introduced  by  a  preposition,  is  called  a 
prepositional  phrase  /  as,  "  By  doing  good." — "  Of  an  en- 
gaging disposition." 

2.  A  phrase  the  principal  part  of  which  is  a  verb  in  the 
infinitive  mood,  is  called  an  infinitive  phrase ;  as,  "  To  be 
good  is  to  be  happy" 

3.  A  phrase  the  principal  word  of  which  is  a  participle, 
is  called  a  participial  phrase  ;  as,  "  A  measure  founded 
on  justice" 

OBS.  1. — A  preposition  that  introduces  a  phrase,  serves  only  to  express 
the  relation  between  the  principal  part,  and  the  word  of  the  sentence 
on  which  the  phrase  depends. 


ANALYSIS,    PAUSING,    AND   CONSTRUCTION.       121 

A  phrase,  used  as  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  verb,  must 
be  substantive  in  office,  and,  with  a  strict  adherence  to  gram- 
matical rules,  can  only  be  infinitive  in  form ;  as,  "  To  disobey 
parents  is  sinful." — "  William  loves  to  study  grammar."  Par- 
ticipial phrases  are,  however,  sometimes  used  by  good,  writers 
in  this  way  ;  as,  "  Hunting  the  buffalo,  is  one  of  the  sports  of 
the  West." — "John's  father  opposed  his  going  to  sea." 

A  phrase,  used  as  an  attribute,  may  be  substantive  or  adjec- 
tive in  office,  and  may  have  the  following  forms  : — 

1.  Infinitive;  as,  "The  object  of  punishment  is  to  reform 
the  guilty." — "His  conduct  is  greatly  to  be  admired."     [In  the 
latter  example,*the  phrase  is  adjective,  to  be  admired  being 
equivalent  to  admirable.'] 

2.  Prepositional  /  as,  "  He  is  in  good  health." — "  The  train 
was  behind  time."     [In  each  of  these  examples,  the  phrase  is 
adjective. ~\ 

An  adjective  phrase  may  have  the  following  forms  : — 

1.  Prepositional  ;  as,  "  Carelessness  in  the  use  of  money  is  a 
vice." 

2.  Infinitive  ;  as,  "  The  desire  to  do  good  is  praiseworthy." 

3.  Participial ;  as,  "  Seeing  the  danger,  he  avoided  it. " 
An  adverbial  phrase  may  have  the  following  forms : — 

1.  Prepositional ;  as,  "He  was  attentive  to  his  business." 

2.  Infinitive  ;  as,  "They  were  anxious  to  ascertain  the  truth." 

3.  Idiomatic;  as,  "In  vain." — "Day  by  day." — "By  and 
by." — "As  a  general  thing." 

An  explanatory  phrase  is  always  substantive  in  office,  and 
infinitive  in  form  ;  as,  " It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  sun" 

The  independent  phrase  is  various  in  form  and  character. 
It  may  be  distinguished  as — 

1.  Infinitive  ;  as,  "  To  be  candid,  I  was  in  fault." 

2.  Participial ;   as,   "  Considering   the  circumstances,  much 
credit  is  due." 

3.  Vocative  ;  as,  "Boast  not,  my  dear  friend,  of  to-morrow." 

4.  Pleonastic;  as,   " The  blessing  of  the  Lord,  it  maketh 
rich/' 


ETYMOLOGY. 

5.  Absolute  ;  as,  "  The  sun  having  risen,  the  mists  were  dift 
persed." 

OBS.  1. — The  last  form  of  this  phrase  is  often  adverbial  in  signifies 
tion ;  as  in  the  example  given,  in  which  it  is  equivalent  to  the  clause, 
v-hen  tu"  sun  had  risen.  It  is,  therefore,  independent  only  in  construe 


OBS.  2. — An  adverbial  phrase  may  be  modified  by  an  adverb ;  as, 
"It  lasts  but  for  a  moment ;"  i.e.,  bat  equivalent  to  only,  and  modify- 
ing the  adverbial  phrase,  for  a  moment. 

OBS.  3. — A  phrase  or  a  clause  is  sometimes  used  as  the  object  of  * 
preposition,  and  thus  forms  a  prepositional  phrase  of  a  complex  01 
anomalous  character;  as,  "Blows  mildew  from  between-fiis-shriveled 
tips." — "That  depends  on  who-can-run-tfie  fastest." 


Exercises  in  Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Praxis  IV.—  Etymological. 

In  the  Fourth  Praxis,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil  :  to  classify  and  ana* 
tyze  the  sentence  as  in  the  preceding  praxis  ;  to  classify  and  analyze 
each  phrase  ;  and  to  parse  the  sentence,  distinguishing  the  parts  oj 
speech,  and  ail  tteir  classes  and  modifications.  Thus  :  — 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED  AXD  PAUSED. 

"  Ah  !  who  can  tell  the  triumphs  of  the  mind, 
By  truth  illumined,  and  by  taste  refined  ?  " 

ANALYSIS.—  A  simple  interrogative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  who  ;  the  predicate  verb,  can  tell  ;  the  object  of  which  is  triumph*, 
modified  by  the  complex  adjective  phrase,  of  the  mind  illumined  by  truth,  and  refined 
by  taste. 

The  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is  mind  ;  its  adjuncts  are  the  and  the  compound 
adjective  phrase,  illumined  by  truth,  and  refined  by  taste,  which  consists  of  the  two  co- 
ordinate participial  phrases  connected  by  and 

The  principal  part  of  the  former  is  illumined,  and  its  adjunct,  the  simple  adverbial 
phrase,  by  truth  ;  the  principal  part  of  the  latter  is  refined,  and  its  adjunct,  the  simple 
adverbial  phrase  by  taste. 

Ah  is  an  independent  word. 


.  —  Ah  1  is  an  interjection^  because  it  is  a  simple  exclamation  of  wonder  or 
admiration. 

Who  is  an  interrogative  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  common  in 
gender;  and  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  can  tett. 

By  is  a  preposition,  because  it  shows  the  relation  between  truth  and  illumined,  the 
pbnue  ty  truth  being  an  adjunct  of  Mummed. 


ANA1YSIS,    PARSING,    ATTD   CONSTRTTCtlGtf.       123 

Truth  is  a  common  noun,  and  abstract,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  quality.  It  is  oi 
the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender ;  and  in  the  objective  case,  because  it 
is  the  object  of  the  preposition  by. 

Illumined  is  a  perfect  participle  from  the  regular  passive  verb  be  illumined.  It  per- 
forms the  office  of  a  verb,  by  expressing  passion  ;  and  of  an  adjective,  by  modifying  the 
noun  mind. 

And  is  a  conjunction,  because  it  connects  the  two  phrases,  by  truth  illumined,  by  taste 
refined ;  it  is  copulative,  because  it  expresses  an  addition. 

[Parse  the  other  words  as  in  the  preceding  praxes.] 

Having  sold  his  patrimony  he  engaged  in  merchandise. 

The  bounty  displayed  on  the  earth  equals  the  grandeur  manifested  in 
the  heavens. 

In  the  varieties  of  life,  we  are  inured  to  habits  both  of  the  active  and 
the  suffering  virtues. 

By  disappointments  and  trials,  the  violence  of  our  passions  is  tamed. 

He,  stooping  down  and  looking  in,  saw  the  linen  clothes  lying ;  yet 
went  he  not  in. 

(Cheerfulness  keeps  up  a  kind  of  day-light  in  the  mind,  and  fills  it 
with  a  steady  and  perpetual  serenity. 

Sitting  is  the  best  posture  for  deliberation ;  standing  for  persuasion ; 
a  judge,  therefore,  should  speak  sitting ;  a  pleader,  standing. 

The  pleasures  of  sense  resemble  a  foaming  torrent ;  which,  after  a 
disorderly  course,  speedily  runs  out,  and  leaves  an  empty  and  offensive 
channel. 

Most  of  the  troubles  which  we  meet  with  in  the  world,  arise  from  an 
irritable  temper,  or  from  improper  conduct. 

The  meeting  was  so  respectable,  that  the  propriety  of  its  decision  can 
hardly  be  questioned. 

They  who  are  moderate  in  their  expectations,  meet  with  few  disap- 
pointments. 

The  soul  becomes  great  by  the  habitual  contemplation  of  great 
objects. 

Exercises  in  Construction. 

1.  Write  sentences,  each  containing  a  phrase  of  one  of  the  fottmoing 
forms. 

A  simple  adjective  phrase.  A  simple  adverbial  phrase.  A  complex 
adjective  phrase.  A  complex  adverbial  phrase.  A  compound  phrase. 
An  explanatory  phrase.  A  participial  phrase.  A  complex  prepositional 
phrase.  An  infinitive  phrase.  A  vocative  phrase.  An  absolute  phrase. 
An  idiomatic  phrase.  A  phrase  used  as  the  subject.  A  phrase  used  as 
an  object.  A  phrase  used  as  an  adjective  attribute.  A  phrase  used  as 
a  substantive  attribute. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


2.  In  the  following  sentences,  substitute  a  phrase  for  one  of  the  dames. 
Examples. 


1.  When  the  ship  arrives,  I  shall 
see  my  friend. 

2.  After  the  pupils  had  recited 
their  lessons,  the  teacher  dismissed 
them: 

3.  They  erected  a  crucifix,  and 
prostrated  themselves  before  it. 

4.  A  quadruped  is  an  animal  that 
has  four  legs. 


1.  On  the  arrival  of  the  ship,  I 
shall  see  my  friend. 

2.  The    pupils   having    recited 
their  lessons,  the  teacher  dismissed 
them. 

3.  Having  erected  a  crucifix,  they 
prostrated  themselves  before  it. 

4.  A  quadruped  is  an  animal  hav- 
ing four  legs. 


"When  spring  comes,  the  fields  resume  their  verdure. 

After  the  enemy  had  been  defeated,  they  fled. 

I  will  meet  you,  when  the  train  arrives. 

As  he  was  stooping  down,  he  saw  the  man's  hiding-place. 

Because  he  was  inexperienced,  they  deceived  him. 

I  fixed  my  eyes  on  the  object,  and  soon  perceived  that  it  was  a  bird. 

The  farm  was  carefully  cultivated,  and  it  yielded  abundant  crops. 

The  rain  fell  in  torrents,  and  we  took  refuge  in  an  inn. 

As  I  did  not  receive  your  letter,  I  did  not  know  of  your  misfortune. 

He  who  had  been  so  idle  and  dissolute  came  to  beggary. 

He  sacrificed  his  health  and  happiness  that  he  might  indulge  in  sen- 
sual pleasure.  [Use  the  infinitive  phrase.] 

She  neglected  the  improvement  of  her  mind,  that  she  might  study  her 
appearance  in  the  glass. 

3.   Construct  a  sentence  from  each  of  the  following  phrases. 

At  all  times.  In  the  hour  of  temptation.  In  the  morning  of  life.  To 
be  useful  to  others.  To  be  diligent  in  study.  The  moon  having  risen. 
The  battle  having  been  lost.  By  doing  good.  Preserving  a  good  repu- 
tation. Trembling  with  excitement.  Discouraged  by  misfortune.  From 
day  to  day.  By  and  by.  As  a  general  thing.  He  being  young  and 
without  experience.  Overcome  with  emotion.  Suppressing  her  tears. 

Questions  for  Review. 

I. — THE  SENTENCE. 

What  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence  ? — The  predicate  ? 

What  is  a  proposition  ?— What  do  propositions  form  ? 

What  is  a  sentence  ? 

What  must  every  sentence  contain  ? 

What  are  adjuncts  ?— What  is  a  simple  sentence  ? 


ANALYSIS,    PARSING,   AND   CONSTRUCTION.       125 

How  are  sentences  divided  ? 

What  is  a  declarative  sentence  ? — An  interrogative  sentence  ? — An  impera- 
tive sentence  ? — An  exclamatory  sentence  ? 

II.— PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

Of  what  does  Etymology  treat  ? 
How  many  and  what  are  the  parts  of  speech  ? 
What  is  an  article  ?— What  are  the  examples  ? 
What  is  a  noun  ? — What  examples  are  given  ? 
What  is  an  adjective  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  a  pronoun  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  a  verb  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  a  participle  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  an  adverb  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  a  conjunction  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  a  preposition  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  an  interjection  ? — What  examples  are  given  ? 

What  is  a  definition  ? — A  rule  of  grammar  ? — A  praxis  ? — An  example  ?— 
An  exercise  ? 
What  is  parsing  ? 

III. — ARTICLES. 
What  is  an  ARTICLE  ? 

Are  an  and  a  different  articles,  or  the  same  ? 
When  is  an  used,  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 
When  is  a  used,  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 
What  form  of  the  article  do  the  sounds  of  w  and  y  require  ? 
Repeat  the  alphabet,  with  an  or  a  before  the  name  of  each  letter. 
Name  the  parts  of  speech,  with  an  or  a  before  each  name. 
How  are  the  two  articles  distinguished  in  grammar  ? 
Which  is  the  definite  article,  and  what  does  it  denote  ? 
Which  is  the  indefinite  article,  and  what  does  it  denote  ? 
What  modifications  have  the  articles  ? 

IV. — NOUNS. 

What  is  a  NOUN  ? — Can  you  give  some  examples  ? 
Into  what  general  classes  are  nouns  divided  ? 
What  is  a,  proper  noun  ? — a  common  noun  ? 
What  particular  classes  are  included  among  common  nouns  ? 
What  is  a  collective  noun  ? — an  abstract  noun  ? — a  verbal  or  participial 
noun? 

What  is  a  thing  sui  generis  ? 

What  modifications  have  nouns  ? 

What  are  Persons  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  persons  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 

What  is  the  first  person  ? — the  second  person  ? — the  third  person  ? 

What  are  Numbers  in  grammar  ? 


126  ETYMOLOGY. 

How  many  numbers  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 
What  is  the  singular  number  ? — the  plural  number  ? 
How  is  the  plural  number  of  nouns  regularly  formed  ? 
What  are  the  rules  for  adding  s  and  es  to  form  the  plural  ? 

V.— NOUNS. 

What  are  Genders  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  genders  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 
What    is    the    masculine    gender  ? — the    feminine    gender  ? — the    neuter 
gender  ?     What  nouns  may  be  said  to  be  in  the  common  gender  ? 
What  are  Cases  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  cases  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 
What  is  the  nominative  case  ? 
What  is  the  subject  of  a  verb  ? 
What  is  the  possessive  case  ? 
How  is  the  possessive  case  of  nouns  formed  ? 
What  is  the  objective  case  ? 

What  is  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition  ? 
What  is  the  declension  of  a  noun  ? 
How  do  you  decline  the  nouns  friend,  man,  fox,  &ndjty? 

VL— ANALYSIS,  CONSTRUCTION,  AND  COMPOSITION. 
What  is  ANALYSIS  ? 
What  is  a  simple  sentence  ? — a  phrase  ? 
Of  what  does  the  subject  of  a  sentence  consist  ? 
How  are  adjuncts  divided  ? 

What  is  an  adjective  adjunct  ? — an  adverbial  adjunct  ? — an  explanatory 
adjunct  ? 

By  what  adjuncts  may  nouns  be  modified  ? — Verbs  ? 
What  is  an  attribute  ? 

In  analyzing  a  sentence,  what  should  be  pointed  out  ? 
What  is  construction  ? — Composition  ? 
When  do  sentences  form  a  composition  ? 

VIL  —ADJECTIVES. 

What  is  an  ADJECTIVE  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 

Into  what  classes  may  adjectives  be  divided  ? 

What  is  a  common  adjective  ? — a  proper  adjective  ? — a  numeral  adjective  ? 
—a.  pronominal  adjective  ? — a.  participial  adjective  ? — a  compound  adjective  ? 

What  modifications  have  adjectives  ? 

What  is  Comparison  in  grammar  ? 

How  many,  and  what  are  the  degrees  of  comparison  ? 

What  is  the  positive  degree  ? — the  comparative  degree  ? — the  superlative 
degree  ? 

What  adjectives  cannot  be  compared  ? 

What  adjectives  are  compared  by  means  of  adverbs  ? 

How  are  adjectives  regularly  compared  ? — Compare  great,  wide^  ajad  /K>k 


ANALYSIS,    PARSING,  AND   CONSTRUCTION.       127 

To  what  adjectives  are  er  and  est  applicable  ? 

Is  there  any  other  mode  of  expressing  the  degrees  ? 

How  are  the  degrees  of  diminution  expressed  ? 

How  do  you  compare  good,  bad  or  ill,  little,  much,  and  many  ? 

How  do  you  compare  far,  near,  fore,  hind,  in,  out,  up,  low,  and  late? 

VIII.  — PRONOUNS. 

What  is  a  PRONOUN  ?— Give  the  example. 
How  are  pronouns  divided  ? 

What  is  a  personal  pronoun  ? — Tell  the  personal  pronouns. 
What  is  a  relative  pronoun  ? — Tell  the  relative  pronouns. 
What  peculiarity  has  the  relative  what  ? 
What  is  an  interrogative  pronoun  ? — Tell  the  interrogativea. 
What  modifications  have  pronouns  ? 
What  is  the  declension  of  a  pronoun  ? 
How  do  you  decline  the  pronouns  I,  thou,  he,  she,  and  it  f 
What  is  said  of  the  compound  personal  pronouns  ? 
How  do  you  decline  who,  which,  what,  and  that  ? 
How  do  you  decline  the  compound  relative  pronouns  ? 

IX.— ANALYSIS. 

What  ia  a  clause  ?— What  are  members  ? 

What  is  a  dependent  clause  ?— a  principal  clause  ? 

What  is  a  complex  sentence  ? — a  compound  sentence  ? 

How  may  clauses  be  connected  ? 

What  is  a  relative  clause  ? 

Is  the  relative  clause  dependent  or  independent  ? 

Is  it  always  a  modifying  clause  ? — Illustrate. 

What  is  a  compound  subject  or  predicate  ? 

X.— VERBS. 

What  is  a  VERB  ?— What  are  the  examples  ? 

How  are  verbs  divided  with  respect  to  their  form  ? 

What  is  a  regular  verb  ? — an  irregular  verb  ? — a  redundant  verb  ? — a 
defective  verb  ? 

How  are  verbs  divided  with  respect  to  their  signification  ? 

What  is  an  active-transitive  verb  ? — an  active-intransitive  verb  ? — a  passive 
verb  ? — a  neuter  verb  ? 

What  modifications  have  verbs  ? 

What  are  Moods  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  moods  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 

What  is  the  infinitive  mood  ?— the  indicative  mood  ?— the  potential  mood  ? 
—the  subjunctive  mood  ? — the  imperative  mood  ? 

XI.— VERBS. 

What  are  Tenses  in  grammar  ? 
How  many  tenses  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 


128  ETYMOLOGY. 

What  is  the  present  tense  ?— the  imperfect  tense  ?— the  perfect  tense  ?— *he 
pluperfect  tense  ? — the  first-future  tense  ? — the  second-future  tense  ? 
What  are  the  Person  and  Number  of  a  verb  ? 
How  many  persons  and  numbers  belong  to  verbs  ? 
How  are  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  formed  ? 
What  is  the  conjugation  of  a  verb  ? 

What  are  the  principal  parts  in  the  conjugation  of  a  verb  ? 
What  is  a  verb  called  which  wants  some  of  these  parts  ? 
What  is  an  auxiliary  verb '? 
What  verbs  are  used  as  auxiliaries  ?  • 

XII. —CONJUGATION. 

What  is  the  simplest  form  of  an  English  conjugation  ? 
What  is  the  first  example  of  conjugation  ? 
What  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  verb  LOVE  ? 

How  many  and  what  tenses  has  the  infinitive  mood  ?— the  indicative  /'—the 
potential? — the  subjunctive/ — the  imperative? 
What  is  the  compound  form  of  active  and  neuter  verbs  ? 
What  peculiar  meaning  does  this  form  convey  ? 
How  are  passive  verbs  formed  ? 
How  is  a  verb  conjugated  negatively  ? 
How  is  the  form  of  negation  exemplified  ? 
How  is  a  verb  conjugated  interrogatively  ? 
How  is  the  form  of  question  exemplified  ? 
How  is  a  verb  conjugated  interrogatively  and  negatively  ? 
What  verbs  in  English  are  defective  ? 
What  tenses  are  wanting  in  these  verbs  ? 
What  verbs  are  called  impersonal  ? 

XTTT.  —PARTICIPLES. 

What  is  a  PARTICIPLE  ?  and  how  is  it  generally  formed  ? 

How  many  participles  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 

How  is  the  imperfect  participle  defined,  and  what  are*  the  examples  ? 

How  is  the  perfect  participle  defined,  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 

How  is  the  prep  erf ect  participle  defined,  and  what  a*«*  the  examples  ? 

How  is  the  imperfect  participle  formed  ? 

How  is  the  perfect  participle  formed  ? 

How  is  the  preperfect  participle  formed  ? 

How  many  participles  has  the  active  verb  ? — the  p**sive  verb  ? 

Into  what  other  classes  may  participles  be  separated  1 

Which  class  are  called  gerundives  ? 

XIV.— ADVERBS  AND  CONJUNCT«OKS. 

What  is  an  ADVERB  ?— What  is  the  example  ? 

To  what  classes  may  adverbs  be  reduced  ? 

Which  are  adverbs  of  time  ? — of  place  ? — of  degree?^  >f  manner? 

What  are  conjunctive  adverbs  ? 


ANALYSIS,    PAUSING,    AND   CONSTRUCTION.        129 

Have  adverbs  any  modifications  ? 

Compare  well,  badly  or  ill,  little,  much,  far  and  forth. 

What  is  a  CONJUNCTION  ? — How  are  conjunctions  divided  ? 

What  is  a  copulative  conjunction? — a  disjunctive  conjunction? — a  corre- 
sponsive  conjunction  ? 

What  are  the  copulative  conjunctions  ? — the  disjunctive  ? — the  correspon- 
sive? 

XV. — PREPOSITIONS  AND  INTERJECTIONS. 

What  is  a  PREPOSITION  ? — How  are  the  prepositions  arranged  ? 

What  are  the  prepositions  beginning  with  a?— with  b  ? — with  c? — with  d? 
—with  e?— with  //—with  i  /— with  m  ?— with  n  ?— with  o  ?— with  p  ?— with 
r  ?— with  s  ?—  with  t  /—with  u  /—with  w  ? 

What  is  an  INTERJECTION  ? — How  are  interjections  arranged  ? 

What  are  the  interjections  of  joy  ? — of  sorrow  ? — of  wonder  ? — of  wishing 
or  earnestness  ? — of^praise  ? —  of  surprise  ? — of  pain  or  fear  ? — of  contempt  ? — 
of  aversion  ? — of  expulsion  ? — of  calling  aloud  ? — of  exultation  ? — of  laughter  ? 
— of  salutation  ? — of  calling  to  attention  ? — of  calling  to  silence  ? — of  surprise  ? 
—of  languor? — of  stopping? — of  parting? — of  knowing  or  detecting  ? — of 
interrogating? 

XVI. —ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 
What  is  a  phrase  ? 

How  may  a  phrase  be  used  ? — What  is  a  substantive  phrase  ? 
What  is  an  independent  phrase  ? — the  principal  part  of  a  phrase? 
What  is  a  simple  phrase  ? — What  is  a  complex  phrase  ? 
What  is  a  compound  phrase  ? 
How  are  phrases  classified  as  to  their  form  ? 
Of  what  form  are  attribute  phrases  ? — Explanatory  phrases  ? 
9 


PART    III. 


SYNTAX. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  government, 
and  arrangement  of  words  in  sentences. 

OBS.  1. — The  word  syntax  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words — syn, 
meaning  together,  and  taxis,  arrangement.  It  is  equivalent,  in  mean- 
ing, to  synthesis  or  construction,  which  is  the  reverse  of  analysis.  Syn- 
tax has  reference  only  to  those  principles  and  rules  which  serve  to  guide 
us  in  the  construction  of  sentences.  The  principles  of  ajialysis  lie  much 
deeper  in  the  subject  of  grammar — are  much  more  fundamental,  than 
the  technical  considerations  which  form  the  groundwork  of  syntactical 
rules. 

Sentential  analysis  is  founded  upon  the  general  laws  of  language ;  and, 
therefore,  its  principles  are  as  applicable  to  one  language  as  another ; 
syntactical  rules,  on  the  other  hand,  can,  as  a  general  thing,  have  refer- 
ence only  to  the  particular  language,  the  use  of  which  they  are  designed 
to  direct. 

In  order  to  be  skilled  in  syntax,  or  the  construction  of  sentences,  we 
must  know  how  the  words  are  related  to  each  other  in  the  expression  of 
thought.  For  example,  if  the  words  John  and  book  are  to  be  joined, 
and  we  know  that  they  are  to  denote  that  the  book  belongs  to  John,  we 
say  JoJirfs  book,  expressing  in  this  way  the  relation  of  property. 

Again,  if  we  are  to  join  the  words  the  teacher,  he,  and  love  together, 
to  form  a  sentence,  we  must  know  the  relations.  Thus  suppose  the 
ttachfj"  is  the  subject  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  love,  and  he  is 
the  object  of  the  action  ;  then  the  sentence  must  be,  The  teacher  loves 
him,  giving  to  the  verb  and  pronoun  their  proper  forms  according  to  the 
relations.  But  suppose  he  is  to  be  the  subject,  and  the  teacher  the 
object ;  then  the  sentence  would  be,  He  loves  the  teacher.  This,  as  will 
be  seen,  requires  a  different  arrangement  of  the  words,  as  well  as  a  dif- 
ferent inflection  of  the  pronoun.  Usually  the  subject  is  placed  before 
the  verb,  and  the  object  after  it 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX.  131 

When  a  word  standing  in  a  certain  relation  to  another  word  is  required, 
on  that  account,  to  undergo  some  inflection  or  modification,  it  is  said  to 
be  governed  by  the  other  word.  Thus,  in  the  above,  John,  standing  as 
the  possessor  of  book,  was  changed  to  John's  ;  and  he,  when  used  as  the 
object  of  the  verb,  was  required  to  assume  the  objective  form,  him.  In 
the  former  case,  John's  is  said  to  be  governed  by  book,  and  him  by  love*. 

Again,  it  would  not  do  to  say  Birds  flies,  because  the  form  of  the  verb 
is  singular,  while  the  subject  is  plural ;  and  the  two  must  agree.  Hence, 
the  expression  should  be  Birds  fly.  This  will  illustrate  what  is  meant 
by  agreement.  Hence  the  following  definitions. 

The  relation  of  words,  is  tlieii  dependence,  or  con- 
nection, according  to  the  sense. 

The  agreement  of  words,  is  their  similarity  in  per- 
son, number,  gender,  case,  mood,  tense,  or  form. 

The  government  of  words,  is  that  power  which  one 
word  has  over  another,  to  cause  it  to  assume  some  particu- 
lar modification. 

The  arrangement  of  words,  is  their  collocation,  or 
relative  position,  in  a  sentence. 

Rules  of  Syntax. 

The  Rules  Of  Syntax  are  designed  to  guide  in  the  ap- 
plication of  the  principles  of  grammar  to  the  construction  of 
sentences. 

As  given  below  these  rules  are  classified  and  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  syntactical  topics  to  which  they  respectively 
relate. 

Rules  of  Relation. 

-Articles  relate  to  the  nouns  which  they  limit, 
n. — Adjectives  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns. 

HI. — Adverbs  relate  to  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  or 
other  adverbs. 

IV. — Participles  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  or  else  are 
governed  by  prepositions. 

V. — Prepositions  show  the  relation  of  things. 


132  SYNTAX, 

Rules  of  Agreement. 

VL — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  finite 
verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

VTL — A  noun  or  a  personal  pronoun  used  to  explain  a  pre- 
ceding noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  by  apposition,  in  the  same 
case. 

"VIM. — A  finite  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or  norni~ 
native,  in  person  and  number. 

IX. — When  the  nominative  is  a  collective  noun  conveying 
the  idea  of  plurality,  the  verb  must  agree  with  it  in  the  plural 
number  ;  but  when  it  conveys  the  idea  of  unity,  the  verb  must 
be  singular. 

X.  — When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  nominatives  connected 
by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  number. 

"XT — When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  singular  nominatives 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  singu- 
lar number. 

XII, — When  verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction,  they 
must  either  agree  in  mood,  tense,  and  form,  or  have  separate 
nominatives  expressed. 

Xm. — Active-intransitive,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs,  and 
their  participles,  take  the  same  case  after  as  before  them, 
when  both  words  refer  to  the  same  thing. 

XIV. — A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  or  the 
noun  or  pronoun  which  it  represents,  in  person,  number,  and 
gender. 

XV. — When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  conveying 
the  idea  of  plurality,  the  pronoun  must  agree  with  it  in  the 
plural  number  ;  but  when  it  conveys  the  idea  of  unity,  the 
pronoun  must  be  singular. 

XVI. — When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  antecedents  con- 
nected by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  number. 

XVH.  — When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  singular  antece- 
dents connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
singular  number. 


KULES   OF  SYNTAX.  133 

Rules  of  Government. 

TTV ii i. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  is 
governed  by  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed. 

XIX. — Active-transitive  verbs,  and  their  imperfect  and  pre- 
perfect  participles,  govern  the  objective  case. 

XX. — Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case. 

XXI. — The  preposition  TO  commonly  governs  the  infinitive 
mood,  and  connects  it  to  a  finite  verb,  or  some  other  part  of 
speech. 

Miscellaneous  Rules. 

if* 
XXH. — The  active  verbs,  bid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let,  make, 

needy  see,  and  their  participles,  usually  take  the  infinitive  after 
them,  without  the  preposition  TO. 

XXTTT. — A  future  contingency  is  best  expressed  by  a  verb 
in  the  subjunctive,  present ;  and  a  mere  supposition,  with  in- 
definite time,  by  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive,  imperfect ;  but  a 
conditional  circumstance  assumed  as  a  fact,  requires  the  in- 
dicative mood. 

XXIV. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  in  the  nominative, 
when  its  case  depends  on  no  other  word. 

XXV. — Conjunctions  connect  either  words  or  sentences. 

XXVI. — Interjections  have  no  dependent  construction. 

OBS.  1. — Syntactical  rules  are  limited  to  the  construction  of  sentences, 
as  separate  portions  of  discourse  ;  the  consideration  of  those  principles 
and  rules  which  regulate  the  combination  of  sentences  into  paragraphs, 
and  these  again  into  particular  kinds  of  composition,  is  not  comprised 
in  the  subject  of  grammar,  but  falls  within  the  province  of  its  kindred 
arte,  rhetoric  and  logic. 

OBS.  2.— Some  of  the  rules  here  given  embody  the  principles  already 
presented  in  the  definitions  of  etymology,  and,  owing  to  the  paucity  of 
inflections  in  English,  are  of  little  practical  use  in  the  construction  of 
sentences. 

OBS.  3. — Analysis  and  synthesis,  or  construction,  should  go  together, 
the  former  illustrating  and  facilitating  the  latter,  and  giving  accuracy  in 
composition ;  since  it  will  be  found  that  the  pupils  who  have  been 


134  SYNTAX. 

trained  to  analyze  sentences,  becoming  in  this  way  familiar  with  their 
structure,  and  the  relation  of  their  parts,  will  have  a  clearer  and  fuller 
comprehension  of  language,  as  well  as  a  more  correct  style  of  writing. 

As  the  rules  afford  practical  directions,  a  new  class  of  exer- 
cises is  here  introduced, — the  correction  of  improper  expres- 
sions, or  false  Syntax,  as  usually  called. 

Under  the  twenty-six  principal  rules  and  their  notes  (sub- 
ordinate rules)  and  observations  (showing  various  usages)  are 
included  the  directions  requisite  to  guide  the  pupil  in  the 
analysis,  parsing,  construction,  and  correction  of  sentences. 
These  are  classified  according  to  the  syntactical  topics  to 
which  they  respectively  relate. 


I.— RELATION. 

Rule  I. — Articles. 

Articles  relate  to  the  nouns  which  they  limit ;  as,  "  At 
a  little  distance  from  the  ruins  of  the  abbey,  stands  an 
aged  elm." 

Exceptions. 

1.  The  definite  article,  used  intensively,  may  relate  to  an  adjective  or 
adverb  of  the  comparative  or  the  superlative  degree;  as,  "  A  land  which 
was  the  mightiest.'" — Byron.  "  The  farther  they  proceeded,  the  greater 
appeared  their  alacrity." — Dr.  Johnson. 

"2.  The  indefinite  article  is  sometimes  used  to  give  a  collective  meaning 
to  an  adjective  of  number  ;  as,  "  Thou  hast  a  few  names,  even  in  Sar- 
dis."— Revelation.  "  There  are  a  thousand  things  which  crowd  into  my 
memory. " — Addison. 

Observations. 

1.  Articles    often    relate    to  nouns  understood;    as,    "The   [river] 
Thames." — "  Pliny  the  younger"  [man]. — "  The  honorable  [body],  the 
Legislature." — "The  animal  [world]  and  the  vegetable  world."—  "  Neither 
to  the  right  [hand]  nor  to  the  left  "  [hand].—  Bible.     "He  was  a  good 
man  and  a  just  "  [man]. — Ib. 

2.  When  an  adjective  precedes  the  noun,  the  article  is  placed  before 
the  adjective,  that  its  power  may  extend  over  that  also ;  except  the  ad- 
jectives ail,  sucft,  many,  what,  both,  and  those  which  are  preceded  by 


RELATION.  135 

the  adverbs  too,  so,  as,  or  Tww  ;  as,  "  AU  the  materials  were  bought  at 
too  dear  a  rate." — "  Like  many  an  othej  poor  wretch,  I  now  suffer  all  the 
ill  consequences  of  so  foolish  an  indulgence." 

3.  Articles,  according  to   their   own  definition,  belong   before  their 
nouns ;  but  the  definite  article  and  an  adjective  seem  sometimes  to  be 
placed  after  the  noun  to  which  they  both  relate  ;    as,    "  Section  the 
Fourth."— "Henry  the  Eighth." 

4.  When  the  definite  article  is  prefixed  to  comparatives  and  super- 
latives (exception  first),  the  article  has  the  force  of  an  adverb. 

5.  The  article  the  is  sometimes  elegantly  used  instead  of  a  possessive 
pronoun  ;  as,  "  Men  who  have  not  bowed  the  knee  to  the  image  of  Baal." 

6.  When  an  or  a  is  put  before  an  adjective  of  number  (exception 
second),  the  adjective  and  the  plural  noun  following  it  are  taken  together 
as  a  unit.  ^ 

7.  An  or  a  has  sometimes  the  import  of  each  or  every;  as,  "He 
came  twice  a  year."     The  article  in  this  sense  with  a  preposition  under- 
stood, is  preferable  to  the  mercantile  per,  so  frequently  used  ;  as,  "Fifty 
cents  [for]  a  bushel," — rather  than,  "per  bushel." 

8.  A,  as  prefixed  to  participles  in  ing,  or  used  in  composition,  is  a 
preposition  ;  being,  probably,  the  French  a,  signifying  to,  at,  on,  in,  or 
of;  as,  "  They  burst  out  a  laughing." — M.  Edgeworth.     "  He  is  gone  a 
hunting." — "She   lies   «-bed  all   day." — "He   stays   out    a-nights." — 
"They  ride  out  a-Sundays."     Shakspeare  often  uses  the  prefix  a,  and 
sometimes  in  a  manner  peculiar  to  himself;   as,  "Tom's  a  cold." — "« 
weary." 

9.  An  is  sometimes  used  as  a  conjunction,  signifying  if;  as, 

"  Nay,  an  thou'lt  mouthe,  I'll  rant  as  well  as  thou. "— Shak. 

Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

I. — When  the  indefinite  article  is  required,  a  should  always 
be  used  before  the  sound  of  a  consonant,  and  an,  before  that 
of  a  vowel ;  as,  "  With  the  talents  of  an  angel,  a  man  mar 
be  a  fool." — Young. 

Exception. — Words  commencing  with  h,  and  accented  on  the  second 
syllable,  require  an  instead  of  a;  as,  An  historical  essay. — An  hexago- 
nal figure. 

n. — When  nouns  are  joined  in  construction,  without  a  close 
connection  and  common  dependence,  the  article  must  be  re- 
peated  ;  as,  "She  never  considered  the  quality,  but  the  merit 
of  her  visitors." 


136  SYNTAX. 

HI. — When  adjectives  are  connected,  and  the  qualities  be- 
long to  things  individually  different,  though  of  the  same 
name,  the  article  should  be  repeated  ;  as,  A  black  and  a  white 
horse  ;" — i.e.,  two  horses,  one  black  and  the  other  white. 
(  TV. — When  adjectives  are  connected,  and  the  qualities  all 
belong  to  the  same  thing  or  things,  the  article  should  not  be 
repeated  ;  as,  "A  black  and  white  horse  ; " — ie.,  one  horse, 
piebald. 

OBS.  1. — The  reason  of  the  two  preceding  notes  is  this  ;  by  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  article  before  several  adjectives  in  the  same  construction,  a 
repetition  of  the  noun  is  implied ;  but  without  a  repetition  of  the  article, 
the  adjectives  are  confined  to  one  and  the  same  noun. 

OBS.  2. — To  avoid  a  repetition,  we  sometimes,  with  one  article,  join 
inconsistent  qualities  to  a  plural  noun;  as,  "The  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments,"—for,  "The  Old  and  tfte  New  Testament."  But  the  phrases, 
"The  Old  and  New  Testament,"  and,  "The  Old  and  the  New  Testa- 
ments," are  both  obviously  incorrect. 

V. — The  article  should  not  be  used  before  the  names  of 
virtues,  vices,  passions,  arts  or  sciences  ;  before  simple  proper 
names  ;  or  before  any  noun  whose  signification  is  sufficiently 
definite  without  it ;  as,  "  Falsehood  is  odious:" — "  Iron  is  use- 
ful"—"Beauty  is  vain." 

VL — When  titles  are  mentioned  merely  as  titles,  or  names 
of  things  merely  as  names  or  words,  the  article  should  not  be 
used  ;  as,  "He  is  styled  Marquis." — "Ought  a  teacher  to  call 
his  pupil  Master  ?  " 

"VTL — In  expressing  a  comparison,  if  both  nouns  refer  to 
the  same  subject,  the  article  should  not  be  inserted ;  if  to 
different  subjects,  it  should  not  be  omitted  ;  thus,  if  we  say, 
"He  is  a  better  teacher  than  poet,"  we  compare  different 
qualifications  of  the  same  man  ;  but  if  we  say,  "  He  is  a  bet- 
ter teacher  than  a  poet,"  we  refer  to  different  men. 

VHL — The  definite  article,  or  some  other  definitive  word,  is 
generally  required  before  the  antecedent  to  the  pronoun  who 
or  which  in  a  restrictive  clause ;  as,  "  The  men  who  were  pres- 
ent, consented." 


&ELATTON.  137 

IX.  —  The  article  is  generally  required  in  that  construction 
which  converts  a  participle  into  a  verbal  noun  ;  as,  "  The  tri- 
umphing of  the  wicked  is  short."  —  "They  shall  be  an  abhor- 
ring unto  all  flesh."  —  Isaiah. 

X.  —  The  article  should  not  be  prefixed  to  a  participle  that 
is  not  taken  in  all  respects  as  a  noun  ;  as,  "  He  made  a  mis- 
take in  giving  out  the  text."     Not  the  giving  out. 

False  Syntax. 

Correct  the  following  sentences,  and  show  in  what  way  the  rule  is 
violated  in  each. 

When  the  corrections  are  made  orally,  the  formules  given  may  be  used,  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  teacher,  tt»e  chief  object  being  kept  in  view,  which  is  not  to  check  the  exer- 
cise of  intelligence  by  mechanical  repetition,  but  to  exercise  the  critical  faculty  of  the 
learner,  and  teach  him  to  make  a  practical  application  of  his  knowledge  of  principles 
and  rules. 

EXAMPLE.  —  He  went  into  an  house. 


.—  Not  proper,  because  the  article  an  is  used  before  house,  which  begins 
with  the  sound  of  the  consonant  h.  But,  according  to  Note  I.,  under  Rule  I.,  "  When 
the  indefinite  article  is  required,  a  should  always  be  used  before  the  sound  of  a  conso- 
nant, and  an  before  that  of  a  vowel."  Therefore,  an  should  be  a  ;  thus,  He  went  into  a 
house. 

I. 

This  is  an  hard  saying. 

Passing  from  an  earthly  to  an  heavenly  diadem. 

Few  have  the  happiness  of  living  with  such  an  one. 

She  evinced  an  uniform  adherence  to  the  truth. 

This  is  truly  an  wonderful  invention. 

He  is  an  younger  man  than  we  supposed. 

An  humorsome  child  is  never  long  pleased. 

Your  friend  is  a  honorable  man. 

The  elephant  is  a  herbivorous  animal. 

She  was  taken  with  a  hysterical  fit. 

n. 

Avoid  rude  sports  :  an  eye  is  soon  lost,  or  bone  broken. 
As  the  drop  of  the  bucket  and  dust  of  the  balance. 
Not  a  word  was  uttered,  nor  sign  given. 
I  despise  not  the  doer,  but  deed. 
Crime  consists  not  in  the  act  but  motive. 


3a  SYNTAX. 

m. 

What  is  the  difference  between  the  old  and  new  method? 

The  sixth  and  tenth  have  a  close  resemblance. 

Is  Paris  on  the  right  hand  or  left  ? 

Does  Peru  join  the  Atlantic  or  Pacific  ocean  ? 

He  was  influenced  both  by  a  just  and  generous  principle. 

The  book  was  read  by  the  old  and  young. 

I  have  both  the  large  and  small  grammar. 

Are  both  the  north  and  south  line  measured  ? 

Are  the  north  line  and  south  line  measured  ? 

Are  both  the  north  and  south  measured  ? 

Are  both  the  north  lines  and  south  measured  ? 

IV. 

Is  the  north  and  the  south  line  measured  ? 

Are  the  two  north  and  the  south  lines  both  measured  ? 

A  great  and  a  good  man  looks  beyond  time. 

They  made  but  a  weak  and  an  ineffectual  resistance. 

The  Alleghany  and  the  Monongahela  rivers  form  the  Ohio, 

I  rejoice  that  there  is  another  and  a  better  world. 

Were  God  to  raise  up  another  such  a  man  as  Moses. 

The  light  and  the  worthless  kernels  will  float. 

V. 

Cleon  was  another  sort  of  a  man. 

There  is  a  species  of  an  animal  called  a  seal 

Let  us  wait  in  the  patience  and  the  quietness. 

The  contemplative  mind  delights  in  the  silence. 

Arithmetic  is  a  branch  of  the  mathematics. 

You  will  never  have  another  such  a  chance. 

•I  expected  some  such  an  answer. 

And  I  persecuted  this  way  unto  the  death. 

VI 

He  is  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  a  gentleman. 
Cromwell  assumed  the  title  of  a  Protector. 
Her  father  is  honored  with  the  title  of  an  EarL 
The  chief  magistrate  is  styled  a  President 


RELATION.  139 

The  highest  title  in  the  State  is  that  of  the  Governor. 
The  oak,  the  pine,  and  the  ash  are  names  of  whole  classes 
of  objects. 

m 

He  is  a  better  writer  than  a  reader. 

He  was  an  abler  mathematician  than  a  linguist. 

I  should  rather  have  an  orange  than  apple. 

vni. 

Words  which  are  signs  of  complex  ideas,  are  liable  to  be 
misunderstood. 

Carriages  which  were  formerly  in  use  were  very  clumsy. 

The  place  is  not  mentioned  by  geographers  who  wrote  at 
that  time. 

IX. 

Means  are  always  necessary  to  accomplishing  of  ends. 
By  seeing  of  the  eye,  and  hearing  of  the  ear,  learn  wisdom. 
In  keeping  of  His  commandments,  there  is  great  reward. 
For  revealing  of  a  secret,  there  is  no  remedy. 
Have  you  no  repugnance  to  torturing  of  animals  ? 

X. 

By  the  breaking  the  law,  you  dishonor  the  lawgiver. 
An  argument  so  weak  is  not  worth  the  mentioning. 
In  the  letting  go  our  hope,  we  let  all  go. 
Avoid  the  talking  too  much  of  your  ancestors. 
The  cuckoo  keeps  the  repeating  her  unvaried  notes. 
Forbear  the  boasting  of  what  you  can  do. 

Promiscuous. 

The  path  of  truth  is  a  plain  and  a  safe  one. 
This  statement  is  merely  a  hypothesis. 
There  was  an  harshness  in  his  words. 
Neither  the  rules  nor  examples  are  correct. 
He  fully  deserved  the  name  of  a  traitor. 
He  is  a  more  effective  writer  than  a  speaker. 
What  sort  of  an  animal  is  an  oyster  ? 


SYNTAX. 

She  was  carrying  an  ewer  of  water. 

He  was  busy  in  the  translating  a  French  work. 

This  passage  has  another  and  a  different  meaning. 

It  showed  what  kind  of  a  man  he  was. 

What  is  the  cost  of  a  hour-glass  ? 

Is  there  any  difference  between  the  upper  and  lower  side  ? 

Travelers  who  visited  the  country  were  put  to  death. 

Parsing. 

In  the  parsing  exercise  under  each  rule,  the  pupil  is  required  to  apply  the  information 
given  in  the  observations.  Hence  they  should  be  read  or  studied  very  carefully. 

Parse  the  articles  in  the  following  sentences  as  in  the  example. 
EXAMPLE. — "He  was  a  friend  to  the  unfortunate." 

A  is  the  indefinite  article,  and  relates  to  the  noun  friend,  according  to  the  rule, — 
Articles  relate  to  the  nouns  which  they  limit. 

The  is  the  definite  article,  and  relates  to  persons,  understood  (unfortunate  persons), 
according  to  the  rule,  etc. 

Charles  the  Fifth  abdicated  the  throne  of  Germany.  The  longer  he 
lived  the  more  he  feared  to  die.  He  was  the  victor  in  a  hundred  con- 
flicts. The  farmer  sold  his  wheat  at  one  dollar  a  bushel.  Many  an 
innocent  man  has  been  wrongfully  condemned.  The  oracle  pronounced 
Socrates  the  wisest  of  men.  He  tried  to  set  the  clock  a  going. 


Rule  II.— Adjectives. 

Adjectives  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns ;  as,  "  He  is  a 
wise  man,  though  he  is  young" 

Exceptions. 

1.  An  adjective  sometimes  relates  to  a  phrase  or  sentence,  which  is 
made  the  subject  of  an  intervening  verb  ;  as,  "  To  insult  the  afflicted,  is 
impious.'11 — "  That  he  should  refuse,  is  not  strange.'11 

2.  With  an  infinitive  or  a  participle  denoting  being  or  action  in  the 
abstract,  an  adjective  is  sometimes  also  taken  abstractly  ;  that  is,  with- 
out reference  to  any  particular  noun,  pronoun,  or  other  subject ;  as, 
"To  be  sincere,   is  to  be   wise,   innocent,  and    safe." — Hawkesworth. 
"  Capacity  marks  the  abstract  quality  of  being  able  to  receive  or  hold." 
These  adjectives  may  be  considered  indefinite  attributes. 


RELATION.  141 

Observations. 

1.  Adjectives  often  relate   to  nouns  understood;    as,    "The   nine" 
[muses]. — "  Philip  was  one  of  the  seven  "  [deacons]. — Acts  xxi. ,8.    "  He 
came  unto  his  own  [possessions],  and  his  own  [men]  received  him  not." 
— John  i.,  11.     "  The  Lord  your  God  is  God  of  gods,  and  Lord  of  lords, 
a  great  God,  a  mighty  [God],  and  a  terrible"  [God]. — Deut.  x.,  17. 

2.  In  the  construction  of  sentences,  adjectives  often  relate  immediately 
to  pronouns;    as,    "  All  ye  are  his  brethren." — Matt.     "Whether  of 
them  twain  did  the  will  of  his  father  ?  "—Ib. 

3.  When  an  adjective  follows  a  finite  verb,  and  is  not  followed  by  a 
noun,  it  generally  relates  to  the  subject  of  the  verb  ;  as,  "  /am  glad  that 
the  door  is  made  wide."    Thus  the  adjective  when  an  attribute  generally 
follows  the  predicate  verb. 

4.  When  an  adjective  follows  an  infinitive  or  a  participle,  the  noun 
or  pronoun  to  which  it  relates,  is  sometimes  before  it,  and  sometimes 
after  it,  and  often  considerably  remote  ;  as,  "A  real  gentleman  cannot 
but  practice  those  virtues  which,  by  an  intimate  knowledge  of  mankind, 
he  has  found  to  be  useful  to  them." 

5.  Adjectives  preceded  by  the  definite  article,  are  often  used,  by 
ellipsis,  as  having  the  force  of  nouns.     They  designate  those  classes  of 
objects  which  are  characterized  by  the  qualities  they  express ;  and,  in 
parsing,  the  noun  may  be  supplied.     They  are  most  commonly  of  the 
plural  number,  and  refer  to  persons,  places,  or  tilings,  understood ;  as, 
"  The  careless  [persons]  and  the  imprudent,  the  giddy  and  ikvjickle,  the 
ungrateful  and  the  interested  everywhere  meet  us." 

6.  The  Adjective  is  generally  placed  immediately  before  its  noun, 
but  in  the  following  instances  it  is  placed  after  the  noun  to  which  it 
relates :  — 

1.  When  other  words  depend  on  the  adjective  ;  as,  "A  mind  con- 
scious of  right."— "  A  wall  three  feet  thick." 

2.  When  the  quality  results  from  the  action  of  a  verb  ;  as,  "  Virtue 
renders  life  happy."    (Indirect  attribute.) 

3.  When  the  adjective  would  thus  be  more  clearly  distinctive  ;  as, 
"  Goodness  injinite." — "  Wisdom  unsearchable." 

4.  When  a  verb  comes  between  the  adjective  and  the  noun ;  as, 
"  Truth  stands  independent  of  all  external  things."    (Direct  attri- 
bute.) 

7.  In  some  cases,  the  adjective  may  either  precede  or  foUow  the  noun  :— • 
1.  In  poetry;  as, 

"  Wilt  thou  to  the  isles 
Atlantic,  to  the  rich  Hesperian  clime, 
Fly  in  the  train  of  Autumn  ?  " — Akenside. 


142  SYNTAX. 

2.  In  some  technical  expressions;  as,  "A  notary  public,"  or,  "A 

public  notary." 

3.  When  an  adverb  precedes  the  adjective  ;  as,  "A  Being  infinitely 
wise,"  or,  "An  infinitely  wise  Being." 

4.  When  several  adjectives  belong  to  the  same  noun  ;  as,  "  A  woman, 
modest,   sensible,   and  virtuous,"  or,    "A  modest,  sensible,  and 
virtuous  woman. 

8.  An  emphatic  adjective  may  be  placed  first  in  the  sentence,  though 
it  belong  after  the  verb  ;  as,  "  Weighty  is  the  anger  of  the  righteous." — 
Bible. 

9.  By  an  ellipsis  of  the  noun,  an  adjective  with  a  preposition  before 
it,  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  an  adverb ;  as,  "In  particular  ;  "  that  is, 
in  a  particular  manner ;   equivalent  to   "particularly."     In  parsing, 
supply  the  ellipsis.     [See  Obs.  1,  under  Rule  XX.~\ 

Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

I. — Adjectives  that  imply  unity  or  plurality,  must  agree 
with  their  nouns  in  number  ;  as,  That  sort,  those  sorts. 

IE. — When  the  adjective  is  necessarily  plural,  or  necessarily 
singular,  the  noun  should  be  made  so  too  ;  as,  "  Twenty 
pounds," — not,  "Twenty  pound."  —  "One  session/'  —  not, 
"  One  sessions." 

OBS.  1. — In  some  peculiar  phrases,  this  rule  appears  to  be  disregarded; 
as,  "  Two  hundred  pennyworth  of  bread  is  not  sufficient." — John  vi.,  7. 
"  Twenty  sail  of  vessels."—"  A  hundred  head  of  cattle." 

OBS.  2. — To  denote  a  collective  number,  a  singular  adjective  may  pre- 
cede a  plural  one;  as,  "  One  hundred  men." — "Every  six  weeks." — 
"  One  seven  times.'"— Dan.  iii.,  19. 

OBS.  3. — To  denote  plurality,  the  adjective  many  may,  in  like  man- 
ner, precede  an  or  a  with  a  singular  noun ;  as, 

"  Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air." — I 


III. — The  reciprocal  expression,  one  an  other,  should  not  be 
applied  to  two  objects,  nor  each  other,  or  one  the  other,  to  more 
than  two. 

OBS. — Reciprocity  between  two  is  some  act  or  relation  of  each  or  one 
to  the  other,  an  object  definite,  and  not  of  one  to  an  other,  which  is  in- 
definite ;  but  reciprocity  among  three  or  more  is  of  one,  each,  or  every 
one,  not  to  one  other  solely,  or  the  other  definitely,  but  to  others,  a  ph> 
rality,  or  to  an  other,  taken  indefinitely  and  implying  this  plurality. 


KELATION.  143 

TV. — The  comparative  degree  can  only  be  used  in  reference 
to  two  objects,  or  classes  of  objects  ;  the  superlative  compares 
one  or  more  things  with  all  others  of  the  same  class,  whether 
few  or  many :  as,  "  Edward  is  taller  than  James ;  he  is  the 
largest  of  my  scholars." 

V. — When  the  comparative  degree  is  employed,  the  latter 
term  of  comparison  should  never  include  the  former ;  as, 
"Iron  is  more  useful  than  all  the  metals.'"  It  should  be,  "  than 
all  the  other  metals" 

VI — When  the  superlative  degree  is  employed,  the  latter 
term  of  comparison  should  never  exclude  the  former  ;  as,  "A 
fondness  for  show  is,  of  all  other  follies,  the  most  vain."  The 
word  other  should  be  expunged. 

VTL — Comparative  terminations,  and  adverbs  of  degree, 
should  not  be  applied  to  adjectives  that  are  not  susceptible  of 
comparison  ;  and  all  double  comparatives  and  double  superla- 
tives should  be  avoided  ;  as,  "  So  universal  a  complaint : "  say 
"  So  general." — "  Some  less  nobler  plunder  :  "  say,  "  less  noble.' 
— "  The  most  straitest  sect :  "  expunge  most. 

VIII. — When  adjectives  are  connected  by  and,  or, -or  nor, 
the  shortest  and  simplest  should  in  general  be  placed  first  ; 
as,  "He  is  older  and  more  respectable  than  his  brother." 

IX. — An  adjective  and  its  noun  may  be  taken  as  a  com- 
pound term,  to  which  other  adjectives  may  be  prefixed.  The 
most  distinguishing  quality  should  be  expressed  next  to  the 
noun  ;  as,  "  A  fine  young  man," — not,  "  A  young  fine  man." 

X. — In  prose,  the  use  of  adjectives  for  adverbs  is  improper  ; 
as,  "  He  writes  elegant ;  " — say,  "  elegantly." 

OBS.  1.— In  poetry,  an  adjective  relating  to  the  noun  or  pronoun,  is 
sometimes  elegantly  used  instead  of  an  adverb  qualifying  the  verb  or 
participle  ;  as, 

"  To  thee  I  bend  the  knee  ;  to  thee  my  thoughts 
Continual  climb."— Thomson. 

OBS.  2. — In  order  to  determine,  in  difficult  cases,  whether  an  adjec- 
tive or  an  adverb  is  required,  the  learner  should  carefully  attend  to  the 
definitions  of  these  parts  of  speech,  and  consider  whether,  in  the  case 
in  question,  quality  or  manner  is  to  be  expressed :  if  the  former,  an 


144  SYNTAX. 

adjective  is  proper :  if  the  latter,  an  adverb.  The  following  examples 
will  illustrate  this  point:  "She  looks  cold; — she  looks  coldly  on  him." 
— "  I  sat  silent ; — I  sat  silently  musing." — "Stand  firm  ; — maintain  your 
cause  firmly." 

XI. — The  pronoun  them  should  never  be  used  as  an  adjec- 
tive in  lieu  of  those :  say,  "I  bought  those  books," — not,  "  them 
books."  This  is  a  vulgar  error. 

XII. — When  the  pronominal  adjectives,  this  and  that,  or 
these  and  those,  are  contrasted  ;  this  or  these  should  represent 
the  latter  of  the  antecedent  terms,  and  that  or  those3  the 
former ;  as, 

"And,  reason  raise  o'er  instinct  as  you  can, 

In  this  'tis  God  directs,  in  that  'tis  man."— Pope. 
"  Farewell  my  friends !  farewell  my  foes ! 
My  peace  with  tJiese,  my  love  with  those  !  " — Burns. 

Xm. — The  pronominal  adjectives  each,  one,  either,  and 
neither,  are  always  in  the  third  person  singular ;  and,  when 
they  are  the  leading  words  in  their  clauses,  they  require 
verbs  and  pronouns,  to  agree  with  them  accordingly  ;  as, 
"Each  of  you  is  entitled  to  his  share." — "Let  no  one  deceive 
himself" 

XTV. — The  pronominal  adjectives  either  and  neither  relate 
to  two  things  only  ;  when  more  are  referred  to,  any  and  none 
should  be  used  in  stead  of  them  :  as,  "  Any  of  the  three  ;" — 
not,  "  Either  of  the  three." — "  None  of  the  four  ;  " — not, 
"  Neither  of  the  four." 

XY. — Participial  adjectives  retain  the  termination,  but  not 
the  government,  of  participles  ;  when,  therefore,  they  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  objective  case,  a  preposition  must  be  inserted 
to  govern  it ;  as,  "  The  man  who  is  most  sparing  of  his  words, 
is  generally  most  deserving  of  attention." 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — Those  sort  of  people  you  will  find  to  be  trouble- 
some. 

FORMULK.— Not  proper,  because  the  adjective  those  is  in  the  plural  number,  and  does 
not  agree  with  its  noun  sort,  which  is  singular.  But,  according  to  Note  I.  under  Eule 
II.,  "Adjectives  that  imply  unity  or  plurality,  must  agree  with  their  nouns  in  number." 
Therefore,  those  should  be  that ;  thus,  TJMt  sort  of  people  you  wilLfind  to  be  troublesome. 


RELATION.  145 


Things  of  these  sort  are  easily  understood. 
Who  broke  that  tongs  ? 
Where  did  I  drop  this  scissors  ? 
Bring  out  that  oats. 
Extinguish  that  embers. 
I  disregard  this  minutiae. 
Those  kind  of  injuries  we  need  not  fear. 
What  was  the   height   of  those    gallows   which    Haman 
erected  ? 

n. 

We  rode  abojat  ten  mile  an  hour. 

Tis  for  a  thousand  pound. — Cowper. 

How  deep  is  the  water  ?    About  six  fathom. 

The  lot  is  twenty-five  foot  wide. 

I  have  bought  eight  load  of  wood. 

m.-iv. 

Two  negatives  in  English  destroy  one  another. 
That  the  heathens  tolerated  each  other,  is  allowed. 
David  and  Jonathan  loved  one  an  other  tenderly. 
Words  are  derived  from  each  other  in  various  ways. 
Teachers  like  to  see  their  pupils  polite  to  each  other. 
The  Graces  always  hold  the  one  the  other  by  the  hand. 
He  chose  the  latter  of  these  three. 
Trisyllables  are  often  accented  on  the  former  syllable. 
Which  are  the  two  more  remarkable  isthmuses  in  the  world  ? 

V.-VL      - 

The  Scriptures  are  more  valuable  than  any  writings. 

The  Russian  empire  is  more  extensive  than  any  government 
in  the  world. 

Israel  loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his  children,  because  he 
was  the  son  of  his  old  age. — Gen.  xxxvii.,  3. 

Of  all  other  ill  habits  idleness  is  the  most  incorrigible. 

Eve  was  the  fairest  of  all  her  daughters. 

Hope  is  the  most  constant  of  all  the  other  passions, 

w 


146  SYNTAX. 


That  opinion  is  too  universal  to  be  easily  corrected. 
Virtue  confers  the  supremest  dignity  upon  man. 
How  much  more  are  ye  better  than  the  fowls  !  —  Luke  xii. 
Do  not  thou  hasten  above  the  Most  Highest, 
This  was  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all.  —  Shakspeare. 
The  waters  are  more  sooner  and  harder  frozen. 
A  more  healthier  place  cannot  be  found. 
The  best  and  the  most  wisest  men  often  meet  with  dis- 
couragements. 

vm. 

He  showed  us  a  more  agreeable  and  easier  way. 
This  was  the  most  convincing  and  plainest  argument. 
Some  of  the  most  moderate  and  wisest  of  the  senators. 
This  is  an  honorable  and  ancient  fraternity. 
There  vice  shall  meet  an  irrevocable  and  fatal  doom. 

IX. 

He  is  a  young  industrious  man. 
She  has  a  new  elegant  house. 
The  two  first  classes  have  read. 
The  oldest  two.  sons  have  removed  to  the  westward. 
England  had  not  seen  such  an  other  king.  —  Goldsmith. 

X. 

She  reads  well  and  writes  neat. 

He  was  extreme  prodigal 

They  went,  conformable  to  their  engagement. 

He  speaks  very  fluent,  and  reasons  justly. 

The  deepest  streams  run  the  most  silent. 

These  appear  to  be  finished  the  neatest. 

He  was  scarce  gone  when  you  arrived. 

I  am  exceeding  sorry  to  hear  of  your  misfortunes. 

The  work  was  uncommon  well  executed. 

This  is  not  such  a  large  cargo  as  the  last. 

Thou  knowst  what  a  good  horse  mine  is. 

I  cannot  think  so  mean  of  him. 

Be  acted  much  wiser  than  the  others, 


RELATION.  147 

XI. 

I  bought  them  books  at  a  very  low  price. 

Go  and  tell  them  boys  to  be  still. 

I  have  several  copies  :  you  are  welcome  to  them  two. 

Which  of  them  three  men  is  the  most  useful  ? 

xn. 

Hope  is  as  strong  an  incentive  to  action,  as  fear :  this  is 
the  anticipation  of  good,  that  of  evil. 

The  poor  want  some  advantages  which  the  rich  enjoy  ;  but 
we  should  not  therefore  account  those  happy,  and  these 

miserable. 

if" 

Memory  and  forecast  just  returns  engage, 
This  pointing  back  to  youth,  that  on  to  age. 

YTTT 

Let  each  of  them  be  heard  in  their  turn. 
On  the  Lord's  day  every  one  of  us  Christians  keep  the 
Sabbath. 

Are  either  of  these  men  known  ? 

No  :  neither  of  them  have  any  connections  here. 

XIV. 

Did  either  of  the  company  stop  to  assist  you  ? 
Here  are  six  ;  but  neither  of  them  will  answer. 

XV. 

Some  crimes  are  thought  deserving  death. 

Rudeness  of  speech  is  very  unbecoming  a  gentleman. 

To  eat  with  unwashen  hands,  was  disgusting  a  Jew. 
Leave  then  thy  joys,  unsuiting  such  an  age, 
To  a  fresh  comer,  and  resign  the  stage. — Dryden. 

Promiscuous. 

William  is  brighter  than  any  of  the  pupils. 
Either  of  those  four  boys  is  trustworthy. 
These  kind  of  bears  are  hard  to  tame. 
The  house  is  about  twenty  foot  wide. 


148  SYNTAX. 

These  two  sisters  are  very  fond  of  one  another. 
The  latter  of  those  three  pictures  is  the  prettier,  but  neither 
of  them  pleases  me. 

Of  all  other  ill  habits  that  is  the  worst. 
Let  the  three  first  pupils  in*  the  class  rise. 
Will  you  have  a  ripe  luscious  peach  ? 
I  cannot  carry  them  books  now. 
What  a  terrible  bad  cold  you  have ! 
Try  to  get  well  as  quick  as  you  can. 

Parsing. 

Parse  aU  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences. 
EXAMPLE. — "This  boy  seems  very  diligent." 

This  is  a  pronominal  adjective,  and  relates  to  the  noun  boy,  according  to  the  role — Ad- 
jectives relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns. 
Diligent  is  a  common  adjective,  and  relates  to  the  noun  6oy,  according  to  the  rule,  etc. 

I  am  glad  you  have  become  skillful.  Strive  to  be  honest  and  true. 
The  door  is  made  wide.  To  be  goodJs  better  than  to  be  learned.  To 
wrong  the  poor  is  very  wicked.  A  word  to  the  wise  is  sufficient.  This 
is  true,  but  that  is  false.  The  careless  are  rarely  successful.  The  house 
was  a  hundred  feet  high.  Virtue  alone  will  render  you  happy.  A  Being 
infinitely  good  cannot  be  the  author  of  evil.  In  general,  the  rule  is 
applicable.  Noble  was  the  act,  and  great  was  the  reward. 


Rule  III. — Adverbs. 

Adverbs  relate  to  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  or  other 
adverbs ;  as,  "  Conscience,  very  often  disregarded,  finally 
becomes  wholly  inert." 

Exceptions. 

1.  The  words  yes  and  yea,  and  no  and  nay,  usually  called  adverbs, 
are  always  independent,  being  the  answers  to  questions,  and  equivalent 
to  entire  propositions. 

2.  The  word  amen,  which  is  commonly  called  an  adverb,  is  often  used 
independently  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  declaration  or  prayer  ;  and 
is  itself  a  prayer,  meaning,  so  let  it  be. 


KELATION.  149 

Observations. 

1.  "Many  words  usually  employed  as  adverbs  are  often  used  as  nouns; 
as,  "  The  Son  of  God  was  not  yea  and  nay,  but  in  him  was  yea." — Bible. 
"  For  a  great  while  to  come." — Id.     "  On  this  perhaps,  this  peradventure 
infamous  for  lies." — Young.     "From  the  extremest  upward  of  thine 
head." — Shak.      "Prate  of  my  whereabout." — Id.      "An  eternal  now 
does  always  last." — Cowley.     "Discourse  requires  an  animated  no." — 
Cowper. 

2.  Adverbs  sometimes  relate  to  verbs  understood;  "The  former  has 
written  correctly;  but  the  latter,  elegantly."     "And,  [/  say']  truly,  if 
they  had  been  mindful  of  that  country  from  whence  they  came  out,  they 
might  have  had  opportunity  to  have  returned. " — Heb.  xi. ,  15. 

3.  To  abbreviate  expressions,  and  give  them  vivacity,  verbs  of  self- 
motion  (as  go,  comprise,  get,  etc.)  are  sometimes  suppressed,  being  sug- 
gested to  the  mind  by  an  emphatic  adverb  ; 

* '  I'll  hence  to  London  on  a  serious  matter. " — Shakspeare. 

"  I'll  in.     I'll  in.     Follow  your  friend's  counsel.     I'll  in. — Id. 

"  Away  old  man ;  give  me  thy  hand ;  away." — Id. 

4.  An  adverb  is  often  used  to  modify  a  phrase  used  as  an  adjective  or 
adverb;  as,  "He  is  greatly  in  fault." — "He  swam  nearly  across  the 
stream." 

5.  The  word  even  is  sometimes  an  adverb ;  but  it  may  be  placed  before 
any  word  to  give  it  emphasis ;  as,  "  Even  I  was  condemned." 

6.  Conjunctive  adverbs  seem  to  relate  to  two  verbs  at  the  same  time, 
and  thus  connect  the  two  clauses  ;  as,  "  And  the  rest  will  I  set  in  order 
when  I  come." — 1  Cor.  xi.    In  this  case  the  adverbial  clause  relates  to  set 
and  the  adverb  when,  to  the  verb  come,  in  its  own  clause. 

7.  No  is  sometimes  an  adverb  of  degree  ;  and  as  such  it  has  this  pecu- 
liarity, that  it  can  relate  only  to  comparatives;  as,  "^V«9more." — "  No 
better." — "  No  greater." — "  No  sooner."    When  this  word  is  prefixed  to 
a  noun,  it  is  clearly  an  adjective,  corresponding  to  the  Latin  nullus  ;  as, 
"  No  clouds,  no  vapors  intervene." — Dyer. 

8.  By  the  customary  (but  faulty)  omission  of  the  negative  before  but, 
that  conjunction  has  acquired  the  adverbial  sense  of  only;  and  it  may, 
when  used  with  that  signification,  be  called  an  adverb.     Thus,  the  text, 
"He  hath  not  grieved  me  but  in  part,"  [2  Cor.  ii.,  5,]  might  drop  the 
negative,  and  still  convey  the  same  meaning ;   "  He  hath  grieved  me  but 
in  part." 

Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

I. — Adverbs  must  be  placed  in  that  position  which  will  ren- 
der the  sentence  the  most  perspicuous  and  agreeable. 


150  SYNTAX. 

OBS. — For  the  placing  of  adverbs,  no  definite  general  rule  can  "be 
given.  Those  which  relate  to  adjectives,  immediately  precede  them ;  and 
those  which  belong  to  compound  verbs,  are  commonly  placed  after  the 
first  auxiliary. 

II. — Adverbs  should  not  be  used  as  adjectives  ;  nor  should 
they  be  employed,  when  quality  is  to  be  expressed,  and  not 
manner;  as,  "The  soonest  time." — "Thine  often  infirmities.'* 
— "It  seems  strangely."  In  the  last  case,  the  adverb  strangely 
is  used  for  the  adjective  attribute  strange. 

HI. — With  a  verb  of  motion,  the  adverbs  hither,  thither,  and 
whither,  are  more  proper  than  here,  there,  where  ;  but  usage 
sometimes  sanctions  the  latter.  To  the  adverbs  hence,  thence, 
and  whence  the  preposition  from  should  not  be  prefixed. 

IY. — The  adverb  no  should  not  be  used  with  reference  to  a 
verb  or  a  participle  ;  as,  "  Will  you  do  it,  or  no  ?  "  No  should 
be  not. 

V. — A  negation,  in  English,  admits  but  one  negative  word ; 
as,  I  could  not  wait  any  longer," — not,  "  no  longer."  Double 
negatives  are  vulgar. 

OBS.  1. — The  repetition  of  a  negative  word  or  clause,  strengthens  the 
negation  ;  as,  "  No,  no,  no."  But  two  negatives  in  the  same  clause,  de- 
stroy the  negation,  and  render  the  meaning  afiirmative  ;  as,  "  Nor  did 
they  not  perceive  their  evil  plight.  "—Milton.  That  is,  they  did  per- 
ceive it. 

OBS.  2. — Ever  and  never  are  directly  opposite  in  sense,  and  yet  they  are 
frequently  confounded  and  misapplied  even  by  respectable  writers  ;  as, 
"  Seldom,  or  never,  can  we  expect,"  etc.  -Blairs  Lectures,  p.  305.  "  Sel- 
dom, or  ever,  did  any  one  rise,"  etc. — Ibid.,  p.  272.  Here  never  is  right, 
and  ever  is  wrong.  But  as  the  negative  adverb  applies  only  to  time, 
ever  is  preferable  to  never,  in  sentences  like  the  following:  "Now  let 
man  reflect  but  never  so  little  on  himself. " — Burlamaqui.  ' '  Which  will 
not  hearken  to  the  voice  of  charmers,  charming  never  so  wisely." — 
Ps.  Iviii.,  5.  For  the  phrase  ever  so  (which  ought  perhaps  to  be  written 
as  one  word)  is  a  very  common  expression,  denoting  degree,  however 
great  or  small ;  as,  "  ecerso  little  " — "  everso  wisely."  And  it  seems  to 
be  this,  and  not  time,  that  is  intended  in  the  last  two  examples. 


RELATION.  151 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — My  cousin  is  soon  expected  to  arrive. 

FORMULE. — Not  proper  because  the  adverb  soon  is  not  in  the  proper  place  to  express 
the  meaning  clearly. 

But,  according  to  Note  I.  tinder  RulellL, "  Adverbs  must  be  placed  in  that  position 
which  will  render  the  sentence  the  most  perspicuous  and  agreeable."  The  sentence  will 
be  improved  by  placing  soon  after  arrive ;  thus,  My  cousin  is  expected  to  arrive  soon. 

I. 

The  work  will  be  never  completed. 

We  always  should  prefer  our  duty  to  our  pleasure. 

It  is  impossible  continually  to  be  at  work. 

He  impertinently  behaved  to  his  master. 

The  heavenly  bodies  are  in  motion  perpetually. 

Not  only  he  found  her  busy,  but  pleased  and  happy  even. 

The  man  only  discharged  his  duty. 

n. 

Give  him  a  soon  and  decisive  answer. 
When  a  substantive  is  put  absolutely. 
Such  expressions  sound  harshly. 
Such  events  are  of  seldom  occurrence. 
Velvet  feels  very  smoothly. 
The  wind  blew  keenly  and  coldly. 

m. 

From  hence  it  appears  that  the  statement  is  incorrect 
From  thence  arose  the  misunderstanding. 
Do  you  know  from  whence  it  proceeds  ? 

IV. 

Know  now,  whether  this  be  thy  son's  coat  or  no. 
Whether  he  is  in  fault  or  no,  I  cannot  tell. 
I  will  ascertain  whether  it  is  so  or  no. 

V. 

I  will  not  by  no  means  entertain  a  spy. 

Nobody  never  invented  nor  discovered  nothing,  in  no  way  to 

be  compared  with  this. 
I  did  all  I  could  ;  I  cannot  do  no  more. 
Neither  he  nor  no  one  else  can  do  that. 


152  SYNTAX. 

Promiscuous. 

Tell  me  whether  this  is  true  or  no. 

Why  do  you  not  say  nothing  ? 

He  only  came  here  to  make  trouble. 

Nothing  can  justify  ever  an  untruth. 

He  was  not  able  to  pay  the  debt  but  in  part. 

The  messenger  went  direct  to  the  place. 

From  whence  did  he  set  out  ? 

The  two  ladies  were  nearly  dressed  alike. 

He  only  read  the  book,  not  the  notice  of  it. 

He  read  only  the  book  ;  he  did  not  tear  it. 

Parsing. 

Parse  aU  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences. 
EXAMPLE. — "  The  work  was  done  very  skillfully." 

Very  is  an  adverb  of  degree,  and  relates  to  the  adverb  skillfully,  according  to  the  rule 
— Adverbs  relate  to  verbs,  participles,  etc. 

Skillfully  is  an  adverb  of  manner,  and  relates  to  the  verb  was  done,  according  to  the 
rule,  etc. 

Are  you  feeling  well  to-day  ?  Yes.  Whither  are  you  running  so 
fast  ?  Truly,  if  they  had  reflected  long  enough,  they  would  not  have 
acted  so  rashly.  Down  with  the  law  that  binds  him  thus.  Never 
decide  rashly.  Obviously,  he  is  greatly  in  fault.  They  started  yester- 
day very  early  in  the  morning.  I  can  go  no  farther.  When  I  saw  him, 
I  went  directly  up  to  him.  He  has  suffered  only  in  a  slight  degree. 
John  has  read  nearly  through  his  book.  Can  you  go  no  higher  ?  No. 


Rule  IV.— Participles. 

Participles  relate  to  norms  or  pronouns,  or  else  are 
governed  by  prepositions ;  as,  "  Elizabeth's  tutor,  at  one 
time  paying  her  a  visit,  found  her  employed  in  reading 
Plato."— Hume. 

Exceptions. 

1.  A  participle  sometimes  relates  to  a  preceding  phrase  or  sentence,  of 
which  it  forms  no  part ;  as, 

"  But  ever  to  do  ill  our  sole  delight, 
As  being  the  contrary  to  his  high  will."—  Milton. 


RELATION.  153 

2.  With  an  infinitive  denoting  being  or  action  in  the  abstract,  a  par- 
ticiple is  sometimes  also  taken  abstractly  (that  is,  without  reference  to 
any  particular  noun,  pronoun,  or  other  subject);  as,  "To  seem  com- 
pelled is  disagreeable." — "To  keep  always  praying  aloud  is  plainly 
impossible." 

Observations. 

1.  The  use  of  the  participle  in  ing  as  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb, 
though  sanctioned  to  some  extent  by  writers  of  reputation,  seems  to  be 
an  anomaly  which  should  be  avoided  when  possible.     Thus,  instead  of, 
"  He  abhorred  being  in  debt,"  say,  "  He  abhorred  to  be  in  debt." 

2.  The  word  to  which  the  participle  relates  is  sometimes  understood; 
as,  "  Granting  this  to  be  true,  what  is  to  be  inferred  from  it."    That 
is,  "  /,  grantrngtlliis  to  be  true,  ask  what  is  to  be  inferred  from  it  ? " — 
"The  very  chin  was,  [7  say,]  modestly  speaking,  as  long  as  my  whole 
face. " — Addison. 

3.  An  imperfect  or  preperfect  participle,  preceded  by  an  article,  an 
adjective,  or  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  possessive  case,  becomes  a  verbal 
noun  ;  and,  as  such,  it  cannot  govern  an  object  after  it.     A  word  which 
may  be  the  object  of  the  participle  in  its  proper  construction,  requires 
the  preposition  of,  to  connect  it  with  the  verbal  noun  ;  as,  "  The  wor- 
shiping of  idols, — Such  worshiping  of  idols — or,    Their  worshiping  of. 
idols,  was  sinful."    A  participial  phrase  is,  however,  sometimes  used, 
by  good  writers,  to  govern  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case. 

4.  We  sometimes  find  a  participle  and  its  adjuncts,  forming  a  parti- 
cipial phrase,  used  as  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  verb ;  as,  "  Exciting 
Buch  disturbances  is  unlawful."     Usually,  the  infinitive  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred ;  as,  "I  intend  to  do  it ; "  which  is  better  than  "  I  intend  doing  it. " 

5.  When  the  use  of  the  preposition  produces  ambiguity  or  harshness, 
the  expression  may  be  varied.     Thus,  the  sentence,    "He  mentions 
Newton's  writing  of  a  commentary,"  is  both  ambiguous  and  awkward. 
If  the  preposition  be  omitted,  the  word  writing  will  have  a  double  con- 
struction, which  is  inadmissible.     Some  would  say,  "  He  mentions  New- 
ton writing  a  commentary. "    This  is  still  worse  ;  because  it  makes  the 
leading  word  in  sense  the  adjunct  in  construction.     The  meaning  may 
be  correctly  expressed  thus  :   "He  mentions  that  Newton  wrote  a  com- 
mentary."    " By  his  studying  the  Scriptures,  he  became  wise."    Here 
his  s-erves  only  to  render  the  sentence  incorrect. 

6.  We  sometimes  find  a  participle  that  takes  the  same  case  after  as 
before  it,  converted  into  a  verbal  noun,  and  the  latter  word  retained 
unchanged  in  connection  with  it;  as,  "I  have  some  recollection  of  his 
father's  being  a  judge." — "To  prevent  its  being  a  dry  detail  of  terms." 
In  this  case,  the  attribute  is  indefinite. 


154  SYNTAX. 

7.  When  the  verbal  noun  is  accompanied  by  adjuncts  of  the  verb  or 
participle,  it  makes  an  awkward  construction,  which  it  would  be  better 
to  avoid ;  as,  " The  hypocrite's  hope  is  like  the  giring  up  of  the  ghost." 
— "For  the  more  easily  reading  large  numbers."     Say,  "For  reading 
large  numbers  the  more  easily." 

8.  After  verbs  signifying  to  pe?'severe  or  to  desist,  the  participle  in  ing, 
relating  to  the  nominative,  may  be  used  in  stead  of  the  infiaitive  con- 
nected to  the  verb ;  as,  "So  when  they  continued  asking  him. " — John  viii. 

Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

L — Active  participles  have  the  same  government  as  the 
/erbs  from  which  they  are  derived ;  the  preposition  of,  there- 
lore,  should  never  be  used  after  the  participle,  when  the  verb 
does  not  require  it.  Thus,  in  phrases  like  the  following,  of 
is  improper:  "Keeping  of  one  day  in  seven," — "By  preach- 
ing (/repentance," — "They  left  beating  o/"Paul." 

IL — When  a  transitive  participle  is  converted  into  a  noun, 
of  must  be  inserted  to  govern  the  object  following. 

in. — A  participle  should  not  be  used  where  the  infinitive 
mood,  a  verbal  noun,  a  common  substantive,  or  a  phrase 
equivalent,  will  better  express  the  meaning. 

IV. — In  the  use  of  participles  and  of  verbal  nouns,  the 
leading  word  in  sense,  should  always  be  made  the  leading  or 
governing  word  in  the  construction. 

V. — Participles,  in  general,  however  construed,  should  have 
a  clear  reference  to  the  proper  subject  of  the  being,  action,  or 
passion.  The  following  sentence  is  therefore  faulty:  "By 
giving  way  to  sin,  trouble  is  encountered."  This  suggests 
that  trouble  gives  ivay  to  sin.  It  should  be,  "By  giving  way  to 
•'-e  encounter  trouble. 

VI. — The  preterit  of  irregular  verbs  should  not  be  used  for 
the  perfect  participle  ;  as,  "  A  certificate  wrote  on  parchment" 
• — for,  "A  certificate  written  on  parchment." 

VIL — Perfect  participles  being  variously  formed,  care 
should  be  taken  to  express  them  agreeably  to  the  best  usage  : 
thus,  earnt,  snatcht,  checkt,  snapt,  mixt,  tost,  are  erroneously 
written  for  earned,  snatched,  checked,  snapped,  mixed,  tossed ; 
and  such  forms  as  holden,  proven,  etc.,  are  now  superseded  by 
held,  proved,  etc. 


RELATION.  155 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — In  forming  of  his  sentences  he  was  very  exact. 

FORMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  preposition  of  is  used  after  the  participle  forming, 
whose  verb  does  not  require  it.  But,  according  to  Note  L,  under  Rule  IV.,  "Participles 
have  the  same  government  as  the  verbs  from  which  they  are  derived  ;  the  preposition  of, 
therefore,  should  not  be  used  after  the  participle,  when  the  verb  does  not  require  it." 
therefore,  of  should  be  omitted  ;  thus,  In  forming  his  sentences,  he  was  very  exact. 

I. 

fey  observing  of  truth,  you  will  command  respect. 

I  could  not,  for  my  heart,  forbear  pitying  of  him. 

I  heard  them  Discussing  of  this  subject. 

fry  consulting  of  the  best  authors,  he  became  learned. 

Here  are  rules,  by  observing  of  which,  you  may  avoid  error. 

n. 

Their  consent  was  necessary  for  the  raising  any  supplies. 
Thus  the  saving  a  great  nation  devolved  on  a  husbandman. 
It  is  an  overvaluing  ourselves,  to  decide  upon  everything. 
The  teacher  does  not  allow  any  calling  ill  names. 
That  burning  the  capitol  was  a  wanton  outrage. 
May  nothing  hinder  our  receiving  so  great  a  good. 
My  admitting  the  fact  will  not  affect  the  argument. 
Cain's  killing  his  brother  originated  in  envy. 

m. 

Caesar  carried  off  the  treasures  which  his  opponent  had  neg- 
lected taking  with  him. — Goldsmith. 

It  is  dangerous  playing  with  edge  tools. 

I  intend  returning  in  a  few  days. 

Suffering  needlessly  is  never  a  duty. 

Nor  is  it  wise  complaining. — Cowper. 

I  well  remember  telling  you  so. 

Doing  good  is  a  Christian's  vocation. — H.  More. 

Piety  is  constantly  endeavoring  to  live  to  God.  It  is  earnestly 
desiring  to  do  his  will,  and  not  our  own. — Id. 


156  SYNTAX. 

IV. 

There  is  no  harm  in  women  knowing  about  these  things. 
They  did  not  give  notice  of  the  pupil  leaving. 
The  sun's  darting  his  beams  through  my  window  awoke  me. 
The  maturity  of  the  sago  tree  is  known  by  the  leaves  being 
covered  with  a  delicate  white  powder. 

V. 

Sailing  up  the  river,  the  whole  town  may  be  seen. 
Being  conscious  of  guilt,  death  becomes  terrible. 
By  yielding  to  temptation,  our  peace  is  sacrificed. 
In  loving  our  enemies,  no  man's  blood  is  shed. 
By  teaching  the  young,  they  are  prepared  for  usefulness. 

VI 

A  nail  well  drove  will  support  a  great  weight. 
See  here  a  hundred  sentences  stole  from  my  work. 
I  found  the  water  entirely  froze,  and  the  pitcher  broke. 
Being  forsook  by  my  friends,  I  had  no  other  resource. 

VK 

Till  by  barbarian  deluges  o'erflown. 

Like  the  luster  of  diamonds  sat  in  gold. 

A  beam  ethereal,  sallied  and  absorpt. 

With  powerless  wings  around  them  wrapt. 

Error  learnt  from  preaching,  is  held  as  sacred  truth. 

Promiscuous. 

He  could  not  have  wrote  such  a  letter. 

By  studying  faithfully,  knowledge  is  acquired. 

We  saw  the  lady  while  crossing  the  street. 

The  learning  anything  requires  application. 

I  do  not  remember  speaking  of  the  affair. 

By  the  exercising  our  faculties  they  are  improved. 

The  garment  was  without  seam,  being  wove  in  one  piece. 

What  is  the  cause  of  that  pupil  being  so  deficient  ? 

Striving  to  excel  is  always  commendable. 

Breaking  windows  is  the  sport  of  mischievous  boys. 

He  disliked  being  under  an  obligation. 

His  being  considered  a  scholar  did  not  make  him  one, 


RELATION.  157 

Parsing. 

Parse  aU  the  participles  in  Hie  following  sentences. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Thus  repulsed,  he  lost  all  hope  of  attaining  his  object." 

Eepulsed  is  a  perfect  passive  participle,  and  relates  to  Ae,  according  to  the  rule, — Par- 
ticiples relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  etc. 

Attaining  is  an  imperfect  active  participle,  and  is  governed  by  the  preposition  0/,  ac- 
cording to  the  rule,  etc. 

Knowledge,  combined  with  true  culture,  makes  a  person  esteemed 
and  admired.  Admitting  the  truth  of  this,  what  does  it  prove  ?  The 
pupils  continued  whispering,  after  being  reproved.  Walking  rapidly  is 
good  exercise.  To  keep  on  arguing  against  prejudice  is  a  loss  of  time. 
Washington,  having  been  appointed  commander-in-chief,  proceeded  to 
Cambridge.  Sb^ame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost.  The  ship  having  been 
wrecked,  the  letter  did  not  reach  him.  He  was  too  fond  of  being  flat- 
tered. Despised  and  shunned  by  all,  he  went  sorrowing  to  his  grave. 


Rule  V.— Prepositions. 

Prepositions  show  the  relation  of  things ;  as,  "  He  came 
from  Rome  to  Paris." 

Exceptions. 

1.  The  preposition  to,  before  an  abstract  infinitive,  and  at  the  head  of 
a  phrase  which  is  made  the  subject  of  a  verb,  has  no  proper  antecedent 
term  of  relation ;  as,  "  To  learn  to  die  is  the  great  business  of  life. " 

2.  The  preposition  for,  when  it  introduces  its  object  before  an  infini- 
tive, and  the  whole  phrase  is  made  the  subject  of  a  verb,  has  properly  no 
antecedent  term  of  relation;  as,  " For  us  to  learn  to  die  is  the  great 
business  of  life." 

Observations. 

1.  The  preposition  always  introduces  a  phrase  ;  and  the  relation  which 
it  expresses  is  that  existing  between  the  object  of  the  preposition  and 
the  word  to  which  the  phrase  relates.     The  latter  is  the  antecedent  term; 
and  the  former,  the  subsequent  term  of  relation.     When  the  phrase  is 
independent,  there  is  no  antecedent  term,  unless  one  be  understood ;  as, 
"To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  to  blame." 

2.  When  a  preposition  begins  or  ends  a  sentence  or  clause,  the  terms 
of  relation  are  transposed  ;  as,  "  To  a  studious  man,  action  is  a  relief."— 
"  Science  they  do  not  pretend  to." 

3.  Both  the  terms  of  relation  are  usually  expressed,  though  either  of 
them  may  be  understood;  as,  1.  Theform&r—"  All  shall  know  me  {reck- 


158  SYNTAX. 

oning]  FROM  the  least  to  the  greatest.  "—Heb.  viii.  [I  say]  "  IN  a  word, 
it  would  entirely  defeat  the  purpose." — Blair.  2.  The  latter — "Opin- 
ions and  ceremonies  [which}  they  would  die  FOR."— Locke.  "  IN  [those] 
who  obtain  defence,  or  who  defend. " — Pope. 

4.  Prepositions  are  not  to  be  supposed  to  have  no  antecedent  term, 
merely  because  they  stand  at  the  head  of  a  sentence  which  is  made  the 
eubject  of  a  verb  ;  for  the  sentence  itself  often  contains  that  term,  as  in 
the  following  example:   " In  what  way  mind  acts  upon  matter,  is  un- 
known."   Here  in  shows  the  relation  between  acts  and  way  ;  the  sen- 
tence being  equivalent  to,  "  The  way  in  which  mind  acts  upon  matter  is 
unknown. " 

5.  In  the  familiar  style,  a  preposition  governing  a  relative  or  an  inter- 
rogative pronoun,  is  often  separated  from  its  object,  and  connected  with 
the  other  term  of  relation  ;  as,  "Whom  did  he  speak  to?"    But  it  is 
more  dignified,  and  in  general  more  graceful,  to  place  the  preposition 
before  the  pronoun  ;  as,  "To  whom  did  he  speak  ?  " 

6.  Two  prepositions  sometimes  come  together  ;  as,  "  Lambeth  is  over 
against  Westminster  Abbey." 

"  And.  from  before  the  lustre  of  her  face." — Thomson. 
"Blows  mildew  from  between  his  shrivel'd  lips." — Oowper. 

7.  Two  separate  prepositions  have  sometimes  a  joint  reference  to  th» 
same  noun;  as,    "He  boasted  of,   and  contended  for,  the  privilege." 
This  construction  is  formal,  and  scarcely  allowable,  except  in  the  law 
style.     It  is  better  to  say,  "  He  boasted  of  the  privilege,  and  contended 
for  it." 

8.  The  preposition  into  expresses  a  relation  produced  by  motion  or 
change  ;  and  in,  the  same  relation,  without  reference  to  motion  :  hence 
"to  walk  into  the  garden,"  and,   "to  walk  in  the  garden,"  are  very 
different. 

J).  Between  or  betwixt  is  used  in  reference  to  two  things  or  parties ; 
among  or  amidst,  in  reference  to  a  greater  number,  or  to  something  by 
which  another  may  be  surrounded ;  as, 

"Thou  pendulum  betwixt  a  smile  and  tear. "— Byron. 
"The  host  between  the  mountain  and  the  shore." — Id. 
"  To  meditate  amongst  decay,  and  stand 
A  ruin  amidst  ruins. " — Id. 


Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

I. — Prepositions  must  be  chosen  and  employed  agreeably 
to  the  usage  and  idiom  of  the  language,  so  as  rightly  to  ex- 
press the  relations  intended, 


RELATION.  159 

n.  —  An  ellipsis  or  omission  of  prepositions  is  inelegant,  ex- 
cept in  those  phrases  in  which  long  and  general  use  has  sanc- 
tioned it.  In  the  following  sentence,  of  is  needed. 

"  --  I  will  not  flatter  you, 
That  all  I  see  in  you  is  worthy  love."  —  Shak. 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE.  —  Her  sobriety  is  no  derogation  to  her  under- 
standing. 


.  —  Not  proper,  because  the  relation  between  derogation  and  understanding 
is  not  correctly  expressed  by  the  preposition  to.  But,  according  to  Note  I.  under  Rule  V., 
"Prepositions  must  be  chosen  and  employed  agreeably  to  the  usage  and  idiom  of  the 
language,  so  as  righ^y  to  express  the  relations  intended."  This  relation  would  be  better 
expressed  by  from  ;  thus,  Her  sobriety  is  no  derogation  from  her  understanding. 


She  finds  a  difficulty  of  fixing  her  mind. 

This  affair  did  not  fall  into  his  cognizance. 

He  was  accused  for  betraying  his  trust. 

There  was  no  water,  and  he  died  for  thirst 

I  have  no  occasion  of  his  services. 

You  may  safely  confide  on  him. 

I  entertain  no  prejudice  to  him. 

You  may  rely  in  what  I  tell  you. 

Virtue  and  vice  differ  widely  with  each  other. 

This  remark  is  founded  in  truth. 

After  many  toils,  we  arrived  to  our  journey's  end. 

I  will  tell  you  a  story  very  different  to  that. 

Their  conduct  is  agreeable  with  their  profession. 

Excessive  pleasures  pass  from  satiety  in  disgust. 

I  turned  into  disgust  from  the  spectacle. 

They  are  gone  in  the  meadow. 

Let  this  be  divided  between  the  three.   (Obs.  9.) 

The  shells  were  broken  in  pieces. 

The  deception  has  passed  among  every  one. 

They  never  quarrel  among  each  other. 

Amidst  every  difficulty,  he  persevered 

Let  us  go  above  stairs, 


160  SYNTAX. 

I  was  at  London  when  this  happened. 
We  were  detained  to  home,  and  disappointed  in  our  walk. 
This  originated  from  mistake. 

I  am  disappointed  of  the  work  ;  it  is  very  inferior  from  what  I 
expected. 

n. 

Be  worthy  me,  as  I  am  worthy  you. — Dry  den. 
They  cannot  but  be  unworthy  the  care  of  others. 
Thou  shalt  have  no  portion  on  this  side  the  river. 
Sestos  and  Abydos  were  exactly  opposite  each  other. 
Ovid  was  banished  Home  by  his  patron  Augustus. 

Promiscuous. 

He  divided  his  property  between  his  four  sons.  (Obs.  9.) 
Whom  was  this  message  meant  for?  (Obs.  5.) 
He  plunged  into,  and  swam  across,  the  river.   (06s.  7.) 
That  remark  is  not  worthy  your  notice. 
He  put  a  basket  of  apples  in  his  wagon.  (Obs.  8.) 
The  pupil  was  admonished  for  his  many  faults. 
The  Indian  differs  with  the  Caucasian  in  color. 
He  is  unacquainted  with,  and  hence  cannot  speak  upon,  the 
subject. 

Parsing. 

Parse  aU  the  prepositions  in  the  following  sentences. 
EXAMPLE.— "Be  on  thy  guard  against  flattery." 

On  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  between  be  and  guard,  according  to  the 
rule, — Prepositions  show  the  relations  of  things. 

Against  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  between  guard  &u&Jlattery,  according 
to  the  rule,  etc. 

War  is  the  law  of  violence  ;  peace,  the  law  of  love.  At  the  bottom  of 
the  garden,  ran  a  little  rivulet.  Overwhelmed  with  anguish,  he  hast- 
ened to  the  palace  of  his  sovereign.  For  an  old  man  to  be  reduced  to 
poverty,  is  a  great  affliction.  My  friend  was  absent  a  whole  year.  Come 
out  from  among  those  impious  men.  They  could  not  give  him  any  con- 
solation in  his  distress.  It  was,  in  truth,  a  dreadful  calamity.  How 
like  a  fawning  hypocrite  he  looks  I 


AGREEMENT.  161 

II.— AGREEMENT. 

Rule  VI.— Nominatives. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  finite 
verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case  ;  as, 
"I  know  thou  sayst  it :  says  thy  life  the  same  ?  " — Young. 

Observations. 

1.  The  subject,  or  nominative,  is  generally  placed  before  the  verb  ;  as, 
u Peace  dawned  upon  his  mind." — "  What  is  written  in  the  law  ?  "     But 
in  the  following  nine  cases,  the  subject  is  usually  placed  after  the  verb, 
or  after  the  first  auxiliary :  — 

1.  When  a  question  is  asked  without  an  interrogative  pronoun  in 
the  nominative  case  ;  as,  "  Shall  mortals  be  implacable  ?  " — "  What 
art  thou  doing  ?  " 

2.  When  the  verb  is  in  the  imperative  mood ;  as,  "Go  thou." 

3.  When  an  earnest  wish  or  other  strong  feeling  is  expressed  ;  as, 
*'  May  she  be  happy  !  " — "  How  were  we  struck  !  " —  Young. 

4.  When  a  supposition  is  made  without  a  conjunction ;  as,  "  Were 
it  true,  it  would  not  injure  us." 

5.  When  neither  or  nor,  signifying  and  not,  precedes  the  verb ; 
as,  ' '  This  was  his  fear ;  nor  was  his  apprehension  groundless. " 

6.  When,   for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  some  word  or  words  are 
placed  before  the  verb,  which  more  naturally  come  after  it ;  as, 
"Here  am  I." — "Narrow  is  the  way." — "Silver  and  gold  Jiave  1 
none,  but  such  as  I  have,  give  /thee." 

7.  When  the  verb  has  no  regimen,  and  is  itself  emphatic;  as, 
"Echo  the  mountains  round." — Thomson. 

8.  When  the  verbs  say,  think,  reply,  and  the  like,  introduce  the 
parts  of  a  dialogue ;  as,  "  'Son  of  affliction,'  said  Omar,  'who  art 
thou  ? '     '  My  name,'  replied  the  stranger,  *  is  Hassan. '  "—Johnson. 

9.  When  the  adverb  there  precedes  the  verb ;  as,    "There  lived  a 
man."— "In  all  worldly  joys,  there  is  a  secret  wound." 

2.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used,  in  a  dependent  clause,  as  the  subjectfof 
a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  must  be  in  the  objective  case;  as,  "She 
desired  him  to  leave  the  room. "    Here,  him  to  leave  the  room  is  equiva- 
lent to,  that  he  would  leave  the  room  ; — an  object  clause  connected  to 
the  principal  clause  by  the  conjunction  that. 

3.  The  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  sometimes  governed  by  a  preposi- 
tion ;  as,  "  For  &  prince  to  be  reduced  by  villainy  to  my  distressful  cir- 
cumstances is  calamity  enough." 

11 


162  SYNTAX. 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — Him  that  is  studious  will  improve. 

FOBMTTLE.—  Not  proper,  because  the  objective  pronoun  him  is  made  the  subject  of  the 
verb  will  improve.  But,  according  to  Rule  VI.,  "A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is  the 
subject  of  a  finite  verb,  mutt  be  in  the  nominative  case."  Therefore,  him  should  be  he; 
thus,  He  that  is  studious  will  improve. 

Them  that  seek  wisdom,  will  be  wise. 

She  and  me  are  of  the  same  age. 

You  are  two  or  three  years  older  than  us. 

Are  not  John  and  thee  cousins? 

Thee  must  have  been  idle. 

I  can  write  as  handsomely  as  thee. 

There  are  but  few  better  pupils  than  him. 

Whom  do  you  think  was  there  ? 

Who  broke  this  slate  ?     Me. 

Them  that  honor  me,  I  will  honor;  and  them  that  despise 

me,  shall  be  lightly  esteemed. 
He  whom  in  that  instance  was  deceived,  is  a  man  of  sound 

judgment 
You  know  as  well  as  me  what  was  done. 

Parsing. 

After  correcting  the  above,  parse  every  noun  and  pronoun  in  each  of 
the  sentences,  in  the  manner  indicated  in  previous  examples. 


Rule  VII.— Apposition. 

A  noun  or  a  personal  pronoun  used  to  explain  a  preced- 
ing noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  by  apposition,  in  the  same 
case;  as, 

"  But  he,  our  gracious  Master,  kind  as  just, 
Knowing  our  frame,  remembers  we  are  dust." — Barbauld. 

Observations. 

1.  Apposition  is  the  use  of  additional  words  or  appellations  to  explain 
a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun.  The  explanatory  term,  or  expression, 
must  have  the  same  relation  to  the  other  words  of  the  sentence  as  thu 


AGREEMENT.  163 

term  explained.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  It  is  good  for  us  to  be  here," 
the  phrase  to  be  here  is  in  apposition  with  the  suhject  it ;  the  meaning 
being,  "It,  to  be  here,  is  good  for  us."  Hence,  the  phrase  is,  like  it, 
the  subject  of  the  verb  is. 

2.  The  explanatory  word  is  sometimes  placed  first,  especially  among 
the  poets ;  as, 

"  From  bright'ning  fields  of  ether  fair  disci os'd 

Child  of  the  sun,  refulgent  Summer  comes." — Thomson. 

3.  The  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  are  often  prefixed  to 
nouns,   merely  to  distinguish  their  person ;  as,    "  /  John  saw  these 
things." — "  This  is  the  stone  which  was  set  at  nought  of  you  builders." — 
Bible.     "  His  praise,  ye  brooks,  attune." — Thomson. 

4.  When  two  or  more  nouns  of  the  possessive  case  are  put  in  apposi- 
tion, the  possessive  termination  added  to  one  denotes  the  case  of  both 
or  all;  as,  "  His  brother  Philip's  wife."— "John  the  Baptist's  head."— 
"At  my  friend  Johnson's,  the  bookseller."    By  a  repetition  of  the  pos- 
sessive sign,  a  distinct  governing  noun  is  implied,  and  the  apposition  is 
destroyed. 

5.  In  like  manner,  a  noun  without  the  possessive  sign  is  sometimes 
put  in  apposition  with  a  pronoun  of  the  possessive  case;  as,  "As  an 
author,  his  '  Adventurer '  is  his  capital  work. " — Murray. 

"  Thus  shall  mankind  his  guardian  care  engage, 
The  promised  father  of  the  future  age." — Pope. 

6.  When  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  the 
word  which  is  repeated  may  properly  be  said  to  be  in  apposition  with 
that  which  is  first  introduced  ;  as,  "  They  have  forsaken  me,  the  Foun- 
tain of  living  waters,  and  hewed  them  out  cisterns,  broken  cisterns,  that 
can  hold  no  water." — Jer.  ii.,  13. 

7.  A  noun  is  sometimes  put  in  apposition  with  a  sentence ;  as,  "He 
permitted  me  to  consult  his  library — a  kindness  which  I  shall  not  forget." 
—  W.  AUen. 

8.  A  distributive  term  in  the  singular  number,  is  frequently  construed 
in  apposition  with  a  comprehensive  plural ;  as,   "  They  reap  vanity, 
every  one  with  his  neighbor." — Bible.    "  Go  ye  every  man  unto  his  city." 
— Ibid.     And  sometimes  a  plural  word  is  emphatically  put  after  a  series 
of  particulars  comprehended  under  it ;  as,  "  Ambition,  interest,  honor, 
all  concurred." — Murray.      "Royalists,  republicans,  churchmen,   sec- 
taries, courtiers,  patriots,  att  parties,  concurred  in  the  illusion. "—  Hume 

9.  To  express  a  reciprocal  action  or  relation,  the  pronominal  adjectives 
each  other  and  one  an  other  are  employed  ;  as,  "  They  love  each  other." 
—"They  love  one  an.  other."     The  words,  separately  considered,  are 


164  SYNTAX. 

singular ;  but,  taken  together,  they  imply  plurality  ;  and  *hey  can  be 
properly  construed  only  after  plurals,  or  singulars  taken  conjointly. 
Each  other  is  usually  applied  to  two  objects  ;  and  one  an  other,  to  more 
than  two.  The  terms,  though  reciprocal,  and  closely  united,  are  never 
in  the  same  construction.  If  such  expressions  be  analyzed,  each  and  one 
will  generally  appear  to  be  in  the  nominative  case,  and  other  in  the  ob- 
jective ;  as,  "They  love  each  other  ;  i.e.,  each  loves  the  other.  Each  is 
property  in  apposition  with  they,  and  other  is  governed  by  the  verb. 
The  terms,  however,  admit  of  other  constructions  ;  as,  "Be  ye  helpers 
one  of  an  other." — Bible.  Here  one  is  in  apposition  with  ye,  and  other 
is  governed  by  of.  "Ye  are  one  an  other's  joy." — Ib.  Here  one  is  in 
apposition  with  ye,  and  other's  is  in  the  possessive  case,  being  governed 
tyjoy-  "  Love  will  make  you  one  an  otlier's  joy."  Here  one  is  in  the 
objective  case,  being  in  apposition  with  you,  and  other's  is  governed  as 
before.  The  Latin  terms  atius  alium,  alii  olios,  etc. ,  sufficiently  confirm 
this  doctrine. 

10.  The  common  and  the  proper  name  of  an  object  are  often  associated, 
and  put  in  apposition  ;  as,  The  river  Thames, — The  ship  Albion,— The 
poet  Cowper, — Lake  Erie, — Cape  May, — Mount  Atlas.     But  the  proper 
name  of  a  place,  when  accompanied  by  the  common  name,  is  generally 
put  in  the  objective  case,  and  preceded  by  of;  as,  The  city  of  New  York, 
—The  land  of  Canaan. 

11.  The  several  proper  names  which  distinguish  an  individual,  are 
always  in  apposition,  and  should  be  taken  together  in  parsing ;  as,    Wil- 
liam Pitt. — Marcus  TuUiits  Cicero. 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — I  have  received  a  letter  from  my  cousin,  she 
that  was  here  last  week. 

FORMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  nominative  pronoun  she  is  used  to  explain  the 
objective  noun  cousin.  But,  according  to  Rule  VII.,  "  A  noun  or  a  personal  pronoun  used 
to  explain  a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  by  apposition,  in  the  same  case."  There- 
fore, she  should  be  her ;  thus,  I  have  received  a  letter  from  my  cousin,  her  that  was  here 
last  week. 

The  book  is  a  present  from  my  brother  Richard,  he  that  keeps 

the  bookstore. 
I  am  going  to  see  my  friends  in  the  country,  they  that  we  met 

at  the  ferry. 
This  dress  was  made  by  Catharine,  the  milliner,  she  that  we 

saw  at  work. 


AGREEMENT.  165 

Dennis,  the  gardener,  him  that  gave  me  the  tulips,  has  prom- 
ised me  a  peony. 

Resolve  me,  why  the  cottager  and  king, 
Him  whom  sea-sever'd  realms  obey,  and  him 
Who  steals  his  whole  dominion  from  the  waste, 
Repelling  winter  blasts  with  mud  and  straw, 
Disquieted  alike,  draw  sigh  for  sigh. 

Parsing. 

Parse  att  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  apposition  in  the  above  sentences. 


Rule  VIII.—  Verb  and  Subject. 

A  finite  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or  nominative, 
in  person  and  number:  as,  "The  bird  jfey  "The  birds 


Observations. 

1.  Verbs  in  the  imperative  mood  commonly  agree  with  the  pronoun 
thou,  ye,  or  you,  understood;  as,    "Do  [thou]   as  thou  list."  —  Shak. 
"  Trust  God  and  be  doing,  and  leave  the  rest  with  him." 

2.  When  a  verb  not  finite,  that  is,  in  the  infinitive  mood,  has  a  sub- 
ject, the  latter  must  be  in  the  objective  case  ;  but  the  infinitive  having 
no  inflections,  there  is  no  agreement.     (See  Obs.  2,  under  Rule  VI.) 

Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

I.  —  The  adjuncts  of  the  nominative  do  not  control  its  agree- 
ment with  the  verb  ;  as,  "  Six  months'  interest  was  due." 
"The  propriety  of  these  rules  is  evident." 

IE.  —  The  infinitive  mood,  a  phrase,  or  a  sentence,  is  some- 
times the  subject  to  a  verb  :  a  subject  of  this  kind,  however 
composed,  if  it  is  taken  as  one  whole,  requires  a  verb  in  the 
third  person  singular  ;  as,  "To  lie  is  base."  —  "  To  see  the  sun 
is  pleasant."  —  "That  you  have  violated  the  law,  is  evident." 

HI.  —  When,  by  transposition,  the  subject  is  placed  after  a 
neuter  or  a  passive  verb,  care  should  be  taken  to  make  the 
verb  agree  with  the  subject,  and  not  with  the  attribute  ;  "His 
pavilion  were  dark  waters  and  thick  clouds."  —  "  The  wages  of 
sin  is  death."—"  Who  art  thou  ?  " 


166  SYNTAX. 

IV. — That  form  of  the  verb  should  be  used  which  is  best 
suited  to  the  style  employed;  as,  "The  clock  has  stricken/' 
Not  hath  stricken,  except  in  the  poetical  or  solemn  style. 

V. — In  selecting  the  proper  tense,  the  order  and  fitness  of 
time  should  be  carefully  observed.  Thus:  instead  of,  "I 
have  seen  him  last  week,"  say,  "I  saw  him  last  week ;"  instead 
of,  "I  saw  him  this  week,"  say,  " I  have  seen  him  this  week ; " 
and  instead  of,  "I  hoped  you  would  have  come"  say,  "I  hoped 
you  would  come" 

"VL — Propositions  that  are  at  all  times  equally  true  or  false, 
should  be  expressed  in  the  present  tense;  as,  "He  seemed 
hardly  to  know  that  two  and  two  make  four," — not  made. 

VH — Every  finite  verb  not  in  the  imperative  mood,  should 
have  a  separate  nominative  expressed;  as,  "I  came,  I  saw,  I 
conquered  ;  "  except  when  the  verb  is  repeated  for  the  sake  of 
emphasis,  or  connected  to  another  in  the  same  construction ; 
as,  "They  bud,  blow,  wither,  fall,  and  die."—  Watts. 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — You  was  kindly  received. 

FOBMTTLE. — Not  proper,  because  the  passive  verb  was  received  ia  of  the  singular  num- 
ber, and  does  not  agree  with  its  nominative  you,  which  is  of  the  second  person,  plural. 
But,  according  to  Rule  VIII.,  "  A  finite  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or  nominative, 
in  person  and  number."  Therefore,  was  received  should  be  were  received ;  thus,  You 
were  kindly  received. 

We  was  disappointed. 
She  dare  not  oppose  it. 
His  pulse  are  too  quick. 
Circumstances  alters  cases. 
He  need  not  trouble  himself. 
Twenty-four  pence  is  two  shillings. 
On  one  side  was  beautiful  meadows. 
He  may  pursue  what  studies  he  please. 
"What  have  become  of  our  cousins  ? 
There  was  more  impostors  than  one. 
What  says  his  friends  on  this  subject  ? 
Thou  knows  the  urgency  of  the  case. 


AGREEMENT. 

What  avails  good  sentiments  with  a  bad  life  ? 

Has  those  books  been  sent  to  the  school  ? 

There  is  many  occasions  for  the  exercise  of  patience. 

What  sounds  have  each  of  the  vowels  ? 

There  were  a  great  number  of  spectators. 

There  are  an  abundance  of  treatises  on  this  easy  science. 

In  this  affair  perseverance  with  dexterity  were  requisite. 

I. 

The  derivation  of  these  words  are  uncertain. 

Four  years'  interest  were  demanded. 

One  added  to  nineteen  make  twenty. 

The  increase  <5J  orphans  render  the  addition  necessary. 

The  road  to  virtue  and  happiness,  are  open  to  all. 

The  ship,  with  all  her  crew,  were  lost. 

A  round  of  vain  and  foolish  pursuits,  delight  some  folks. 

n. 

To  obtain  the  praise  of  men  were  their  only  object. 

To  steal  and  then  deny  it  are  a  double  sin. 

To  copy  and  claim  the  writings  of  others,  are  plagiarism. 

To  live  soberly,  righteously,  and  piously,  are  required  of  all 

men. 
That  it  is  our  duty  to  promote  peace  and  harmony  among 

men,  admit  of  no  dispute. 

m. 

The  reproofs  of  instruction  is  the  way  of  life. 
A  diphthong  are  two  vowels  joined  in  one  syllable. 
So  great  an  affliction  to  him  was  his  wicked  sons. 
What  is  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  that  island  ? 
He  churlishly  said  to  me,  "  Who  is  you  ?  " 

IV. 

That  boy  writeth  very  elegantly. 

Doth  not  your  cousin  intend  to  visit  you  ? 

The  Lord  has  prepared  his  throne  in  the  heavens. 

Dost  thou  think  it  will  rain  to-day  ? 


168  SYNTAX. 

Praise  waits  for  thee,  O  God,  in  Sion. 

My  brother  hath  torn  my  book. 

Thou  stoodest  in  my  way,  and  hinderedst  me. 

So  then  it  is  not  of  him  that  wills,  nor  of  him  that  runs,  but 

of  God  that  shows  mercy. 

V. 

The  work  has  been  finished  last  week. 
He  was  out  of  employment  this  fortnight 
This  mode  of  expression  has  been  formerly  in  use. 
I  should  be  much  obliged  to  him  if  he  will  attend  to  it, 
I  will  pay  the  vows  which  my  lips  have  uttered  when  I  was  in 

trouble. 
I  thought,  by  the  accent,  that  he  had  been  speaking  to  his 

child. 

And  he  that  was  dead  sat  up  and  began  to  speak. 
Thou  hast  borne,  and  hast  patience,  and  for  my  name's  sake 

hast  labored,  and  hast  not  fainted. — Rev.  ii.,  3. 
Ye  will  not  come  unto  me  that  ye  might  have  life. 
At  the  end  of  this  quarter,  I  shall  be  at  school  two  years. 
We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  have  done. 
We  expected  that  he  would  have  arrived  last  night. 
Our  friends  intended  to  have  met  us. 
We  hoped  to  have  seen  you. 
He  would  not  have  been  allowed  to  have  entered. 

YL 

The  doctor  affirmed  that  fever  always  produced  thirst 
The  ancients  asserted  that  virtue  was  its  own  reward. 
Columbus  knew  that  the  earth  was  round. 

VH 

Am  sorry  to  hear  of  thy  loss,  but  hope  it  may  be  retrieved. 
The  physician  speaks  favorably  of  the  case ;  is  inclined  to 

think  the  patient  will  get  well. 
Should  be  happy  to  see  you  soon. 

On  further  information,  find  my  loss  to  be  inconsiderable. 
"  Will  martial  flames  forever  fire  thy  mind, 
And  never,  never  be  to  Heaven  resigned  ?  " — Pope. 


AGREEMENT. 

Promiscuous. 

"~z  Some  people  is  always  busy  and  yet  does  very  little. 
7  Sufficient  data  was  not  given  to  solve  the  problem. 
^  A  judicious  selection  of  studies  afford  much  aid. 

Then  thou  spoke  in  vision  to  thy  Holy  One. 

He  dare  not  do  as  he  threatens. 

The  man  don't  know  what  he  wants. 

Sobriety  with  humility  lead  to  honor. 

New  York,  May  3d,  1882. 

Dear  Sir,  Have  just  received  your  kind  favor  of  this  morning,  and  can- 
not forbear  to  express  my  gratitude  to  you.  On  further  informa- 
tion, find  I  have  not  lost  so  much  as  at  first  supposed  ;  and  believe 
I  shall  still  b"£  able  to  meet  all  my  engagements.  Should,  however, 
be  happy  to  see  you.  Accept,  dear  sir,  my  most  cordial  thanks. 

C        C.  D. 

'Parsing. 

Parse  the  subjects  and  each  of  the  predicate  verbs  in  the  following 
sentences. 

EXAMPLE. — "I  have  said  to  corruption,  Thou  art  my  father." 

Jin  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  singular  number,  common  in  gender,  and 
in  the  nominative  case,  being  the  subject  of  the  verb  have  said,  according  to  the  rule, 
— A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative 
case. 

Have  said  is  a  verb,  irregular  in  form,  the  principal  parts  being,  say,  said,  saying, 
said ;  it  is  active  transitive  in  signification,  its  object  being  the  clause,  Thou  art  my 
father.  It  is  found  in  the  indicative  mood  and  perfect  tense,  and  agrees  with  its  subject 
I  in  the  first  person,  singular  number ;  according  to  the  rule,  A  finite  verb  must  agree 
With  its  subject  or  nominative,  in  person  and  number. 

Thou  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  second  person,  singular  number,  and  neuter  gender 
(referring  to  corruption),  and  in  the  nominative  case,  being  the  subject  of  the  verb  art  ; 
according  to  the  rule,  etc. 

Art  is  an  irregular  neuter  verb,  the  principal  parts  being  be,  was,  being,  been  ;  it  is 
found  in  the  indicative  mood  and  present  tense,  and  agrees  with  its  subject  thou  in  the 
second  person,  singular  number ;  according  to  the  rule,  etc. 

Did  he  say  I  could  go  ?  I  wish  that  I  were  sure  of  his  sincerity.  Tell 
me  how  long  you  have  been  there.  What  hast  thou  done  ?  To  speak 
well  is  a  valuable  accomplishment.  That  you  have  spoken  truly  is  not 
doubted.  Canst  thou  minister  to  a  mind  diseased  ?  Unseen  behind 
them  sank  the  sun.  Never  decide  rashly,  or  you  may  repent  bitterly. 
Pluck  one  thread,  and  the  web  ye  mar.  I  shall  have  departed,  ere  you 
return. 

s- 


1?0  SYNTAX. 

Rule  IX.— Collective  Nominative. 

"When  the  nominative  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the 
idea  of  plurality,  the  verb  must  agree  with  it  in  the  plural 
number ;  but  when  it  conveys  the  idea  of  unity,  the  verb 
must  be  singular;  as,  "My  people  do  not  consider" — "His 
army  was  defeated" — " His  armies  were  defeated" 

OBS. — Whether  the  idea  conveyed  is  that  of  plurality  or  unity,  de- 
pends upon  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  that  is,  the  nature  of  the  assertion. 
If  it  refers  to  the  individuals  separately,  plurality  is  conveyed,  because 
there  are  more  than  one  ;  if  to  the  whole  collectively,  unity  is  expressed, 
because  there  is  but  one  body  referred  to.  Thus,  in  the  above  examples, 
the  people  consider  as  individuals,  not  as  a  whole,  to  consider  being  an 
individual  or  personal  act ;  but,  in  the  second  example,  the  army  as  a 
whole  was  defeated,  not  the  individuals  composing  it. 

False  Syntax. 

"RYAMPT/R. — The  people  rejoices  in  that  which  should  cause 
sorrow. 

FOBMULB. — Not  proper,  because  the  verb  rejoices  is  of  the  singular  number,  and  does 
not  correctly  agree  with  its  nominative  people,  which  is  a  collective  noun,  conveying  the 
idea  of  plurality.  But,  according  to  Rule  IX.,  "When  the  nominative  is  a  collective 
noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality,  the  verb  must  agree  with  it  in  the  plural  number." 
Therefore,  rejoices  should  be  rejoice ;  thus,  The  people  rejoice  in  that  which  should 
cause  sorrow. 

The  nobility  was  assured  that  he  would  not  interpose. 

Blessed  is  the  people  that  know  the  joyful  sound. 

The  majority  was  disposed  to  adopt  the  measure. 

The  committee  has  voted  upon  the  report. 

The  peasantry  goes  barefoot,  and  the   middle  class  wears 

wooden  shoes. 

The  church  have  no  power  to  inflict  such  punishments. 
The  fleet  were  almost  destroyed  in  the  action. 
The  regiment  consist  of  a  thousand  men. 
The  council  have  established  several  salutary  regulations. 
No  society  are  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  its  members. 
A  large  flock  of  birds  were  in  sight. 
The  public  is  informed  that  a  meeting  will  be  held. 
A  group  of  children  was  growing  up  about  him. 


AGREEMENT.  171 

The  jury  have  been  formed,  but  has  not  agreed. 
The  happy  pair  has   received   the   congratulations   of  their 
friends. 

Parsing. 

Parse  each  collective  noun  and  each  verb  in  the  preceding  exercise. 

Rule  X.— Two  or  More  Nominatives. 

When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  nominatives  connected 
by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  number » 

as,  "  Judges  and  senates  have  been  bought  for  gold." 

ir 

Exceptions. 

1.  When  two  or  more  nominatives  connected  by  and,  serve  merely  to 
describe  one  person  or  thing,  or  when  they  are  taken  collectively,  they 
do  not  require  a  plural  verb;  as,  "This  philosopher  and  poet  was  ban' 
ished  from  his  country." — "  Toll,  tribute,  and  custom,  was  paid  unto 
them."— Ezra  iv.,  20. 

"Whose  icy  current  and  compulsive  course 
Ne'er  feels  retiring  ebb,  but  keeps  due  on." — Shakspeare. 

2.  When  two  nominatives  connected  by  and  are  emphatically  distin- 
guished, they  belong  to  different  propositions,  and  (if  singular)  do  not 
require  a  plural  verb;  as,  "Ambition,  and  not  the  safety  of  the  state, 
was  concerned." — Goldsmith. 

"Ay,  and  no  too,  was  no  good  divinity." — Shakspeare. 
"  Love,  and  love  only,  is  the  loan  for  love." —  Young. 

3.  When  two  or  more  nominatives  connected  by  and  are  precede  \  by 
the  adjective  eacfi,  every,  or  no ;  they  are  taken  separately,  and  do  not 
require  a  plural  verb ;  as,  "  When  no  part  of  their  substance,  and  no 
one  of  their  properties,  is  the  same." — Sutler.     "Every  limb  and  fea 
ture  appears  with  its  respective  grace." — Steele. 

4.  When  the  verb  separates  its  nominatives,  it  agrees  with  that  which 
precedes  it,  and  is  understood  to  the  rest ;  as, 

'' Forth  in  the  pleasing  spring, 

Thy  beauty  walks,  thy  tenderness,  and  love."—  Thomson. 

Observations. 

1.  The  conjunction  is  sometimes  understood  ;  as, 

"Art,  empire,  earth  itself,  to  change  are  doomed. "— 


SYNTAX 

2.  When  the  nominatives  are  of  different  persons,  the  verb  agrees 
with  the  first  person  in  preference  to  the  second,  and  with  the  second 
in  preference  to  the  third  ;  for  thou  and  I  (or  Tie,  ihou,  and  7)  are  equiv- 
alent to  we  ;  and  than  and  he  are  equivalent  to  you  ;  as,  "  Why  speakest 
thou  any  more  of  thy  matters  ?  I  have  said,  ihou  and  Ziba  divide  the 
land."— 2  Sam.  xix.  i.  e.,  "divide ye  the  land." 

Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

L — When  two  subjects  or  antecedents  are  connected,  one 
of  which  is  taken  affirmatively,  and  the  other  negatively,  they 
belong  to  different  propositions ;  and  the  verb  or  pronoun 
must  agree  with  the  affirmative  subject,  and  be  understood  to 
the  other  ;  as,  "  Diligent  industry,  and  not  mean  savings,  pro- 
duces honorable  competence." 

IL — When  two  subjects  or  antecedents  are  connected  by 
as  well  as,  but,  or  save,  they  belong  to  different  propositions ; 
and,  (unless  one  of  them  is  preceded  by  the  adverb  not,)  the 
verb  and  pronoun  must  agree  with  the  former  and  be  under- 
stood to  the  latter  ;  as,  "  Veracity,  as  well  as  justice,  is  to  be 
our  rule  of  life." — Butler.  "  Nothing  but  wailings  was  heard. 

m. — When  two  or  more  subjects  or  antecedents  are  pre- 
ceded by  the  adjective  each,  every,  or  no,  they  are  taken  sepa- 
rately, and  require  a  verb  and  pronoun  in  the  singular 
number  ;  as, 

"  And  every  sense,  and  every  heart  is  joy." — Thomson. 
"  Each  beast,  each  insect,  happy  in  its  own." — Pope. 

IV. — Two  or  more  distinct  subject  phrases  connected  by 
and,  require  a  plural  verb  ;  as,  To  be  wise  in  our  own  eyes,  to 
be  wise  in  the  opinion  of  the  world,  and  to  be  wise  in  the  sight 
of  our  Creator,  are  three  things  so  very  different,  as  rarely  to 
coincide." — Blair. 

False  Syntax, 

— Industry  and  frugality  leads  to  wealth. 

.— Not  proper,  because  the  verb  leads  is  in  the  singular  number,  and  does 
not  correctly  agree  with  its  two  nominatives,  industry  and  frugality,  which  are  connected 
by  and.  and  taken  conjoint!}'.  But,  according  to  Rule  X.,  "When  a  verb  has  two  or 
more  nominatives  connected  by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  number." 
Therefore  leadt  should  be  lead ;  thus,  Industry  and  frugality  lead  to  wealth. 


AGREEMENT.  173 

Temperance  and  exercise  preserves  health. 

Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man. 

My  love  and  affection  toward  thee  remains  unaltered. 

Wealth,  honor,  and  happiness,  forsakes  the  indolent. 

My  flesh  and  my  heart  faileth. 

In  all  his  works,  there  is  sprightliness  and  vigor. 

Elizabeth's  meekness  and  humility  was  extraordinary. 

In  unity  consists  the  security  and  welfare  of  every  society. 

High  pleasures  and  luxurious  living  begets  satiety. 

Much  does  human  pride  and  folly  require  correction. 

Our  conversation  and  intercourse  with  the  world  is,  in  several 

respects,  an  education  for  vice. 
Occasional  release  from  toil,  and  indulgence  of  ease,  is  what 

nature  demands,  and  virtue  allows. 

I. 

Wisdom,  and  not  wealth,  procure  esteem. 

Prudence,  and  not  pomp,  are  the  basis  of  his  fame. 

Not  fear  but  labor  have  overcome  him. 

The  decency,  and  not  the  abstinence,  make  the  difference. 

Not  her  beauty  but  her  talents  attracts  attention. 

Her  talents,  not  her  beauty,  attracts  attention. 

Study,  not  vain  pleasures,  engage  his  mind. 

n. 

His  constitution,  as  well  as  his  fortune,  require  care. 
Their  religion,  as  well  as  their  manners,  were  ridiculed. 
Every  one,  but  thou,  hadst  been  legally  discharged. 
The  buyer,  as  well  as  the  seller,  are  held  liable. 
All  songsters,  save  the  hooting  owl,  was  mute. 
None,  but  thou,  O  mighty  prince  !  canst  avert  the  blow. 
Nothing,  but  frivolous  amusements,  please  the  indolent. 
Caesar,  as  well  as  Cicero,  were  admired  for  their  eloquence. 

m. 

Each  day,  and  each  hour,  bring  its  portion  of  duty. 
Every  house,  and  even  every  cottage,  were  plundered. 
Every  thought,  every  word,  and  every  action,  are  brought  into 
judgment. 


174  SYNTAX. 

The  time  has  come,  when  no  oppressor,  and  no  unjust  man, 
are  able  to  be  screened  from  punishment. 

No  bandit  fierce,  no  tyrant  mad  with  pride, 
No  cavern'd  hermit,  rest  self-satisfied. 

IV. 

To  profess  and  to  possess  is  very  different. 

To  do  justly,  to  love  mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly  has  been  en- 
joined upon  all  mankind. 

To  cultivate  the  mind  and  to  purify  the  heart  was  the  object 
of  her  endeavors. 

Promiscuous. 

No  wife,  no  mother,  no  child  were  there  to  soothe  his  dying 
hours. 

Virtue,  and  virtue  alone,  are  able  to  satisfy  the  heart.  (Excep- 
tion 2.) 

There  are  beauty  of  thought  and  elegance  of  expression  in  all 
his  poems.  (Exception  1.) 

The  long  and  short  of  the  matter  are  simply  this. 

James,  and  also  his  brother,  have  left  school. 

Eveiy  herb,  every  shrub,  and  every  tree  are  beginning  to  bud. 

That  noted  poet  and  scholar  have  passed  from  earth.  (Ex- 
ception I.) 

Not  a  loud  voice,  but  strong  proofs,  brings  conviction. 

The  saint,  the  father,  and  the  husband  pray.     (Exception  1.) 

The  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides  are  now  understood. 


Parsing* 

Parse  each  verb  in  the  preceding  exercise. 


Rule  XI.— Singular  Nominatives. 

When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  singular  nominatives 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
singular  number ;  as,  "  Fear  or  jealousy  affects  him." 


AGREEMENT.  175 

Observations. 

1.  When  the  latter  nominative  is  parenthetical,  the  verb  agrees  with 
the  former  only;  as,  "One  example,  or  ten,  says  nothing  against  the 
universal  opinion."— Leigh  Hunt. 

2.  When  the  latter  of  the  two  nouns  connected  is  used  to  explain  the 
former,  the  principal  subject  alone  controls  the  verb;  as,  "The  Mexi- 
can figures,  or  picture-writing,  represent  things,  not  words." 

Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

I. — When  a  verb  has  nominatives  of  different  persons  or 
numbers,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must '  agree  with  that 
which  is  placed  next  to  it,  and  be  understood  to  the  rest,  in 
the  person  and  number  required  ;  as,  "  Neither  he  nor  his 
brothers  were  Ihere." — "  Neither  you  nor  I  am  concerned." 

II. — But  when  the  nominatives  require  different  forms  of 
the  verb,  it  is  in  general  more  elegant  to  express  the  verb,  or 
its  auxiliary,  in  connection  with  each  of  them  ;  as,  "  Either 
thou  art  to  blame,  or  I  am." — "Neither  were  their  numbers, 
nor  was  their  destination  known." 

HE. — The  speaker  should  generally  mention  himself  last; 
as,  "Thou  or  /must  go." — "He  then  addressed  his  discourse 
to  my  father  and  me."  But  in  confessing  a  fault  he  may  as- 
sume the  first  place  ;  as,  " /and  Kobert  did  it." 

IV. — Two  or  more  distinct  subject  phrases  connected  by  or 
or  nor,  require  a  singular  verb  ;  as,  "That  a  drunkard  should 
be  poor,  or  that  a  fop  should  be  ignorant,  is  not  strange." 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — Ignorance  or  negligence  have  caused  this  mis- 
take. 

FOBMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  verb  have  caused  is  of  the  plural  number,  and 
does  not  correctly  agree  with  its  two  nominatives,  ignorance  and  negligence,  which  are 
connected  by  or.  But,  according  to  Rule  XI.,  "  When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  singular 
nominatives,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  singular  number." 
Therefore,  have  caused  should  be  has  caused ;  thus,  Ignorance  or  negligence  has  caused 
this  mistake. 

Neither  imprudence,  credulity,  nor  vanity,  have  ever  been  im- 
puted to  him. 
What  the  heart  or  the  imagination  dictate  flows  readily. 


176  STKTAX. 

Neither  authority  nor  analogy  support  such  an  opinion. 

Either  ability  or  inclination  were  wanting. 

Redundant  grass  or  heath  afford  abundance  to  their  cattle. 

The  returns  of  kindness  are  sweet ;  and  there  are  neither 
honor,  nor  virtue,  nor  utility  in  repelling  them. 

The  sense  or  drift  of  a  proposition,  often  depend  upon  a  sin- 
gle letter. 

L 

Neither  he  nor  you  was  there. 

Either  the  boys  or  I  were  in  fault. 

Neither  he  nor  I  intends  to  be  present. 

Neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors  was  saved. 

Whether  one  person  or  more  was  concerned  in  the  business 
does  not  yet  appear. 

n. 

Are  they  expected  or  I  to  be  there  ? 

Neither  he,  nor  am  I,  capable  of  it. 

Either  he  has  been  imprudent,  or  his  associates  vindictive. 

Neither  were  their  riches,  nor  their  influence  great. 

m. 

I  and  my  father  were  riding  out. 

The  premiums  were  given  to  me  and  George. 

I  and  Jane  are  invited. 

They  ought  to  invite  me  and  my  sister. 

We  dreamed  a  dream  in  one  night,  I  and  he. 

IV. 

To  practice  tale-bearing,  or  even  to  countenance  it,  are  great 

injustice. 
To  reveal  secrets,  or  to  betray  one's  friends,  are  contemptible 

perfidy. 

Promiscuous. 

Ignorance  or  negligence  have  caused  the  mistake. 
Neither  the  man  nor  his  sons  has  been  here. 
Either  he  or  I  are  mistaken. 
Neither  thou  nor  I  art  to  blame. 


AGREEMENT.  177 

To  have  brilliant  talents,  or  to  amass  great  riches,  render  most 

persons  very  proud. 

Neither  I  nor  my  father  are  able  to  be  present. 
Vanity,  ambition,  or  sensuality  lead  many  to  ruin. 
To  read  or  to  write  were  equally  difficult  to  her. 
Neither  the  captain  nor  the  passengers  was  saved. 

Parsing. 

Parse  each  of  the  verbs  in  the  preceding  exercise. 


Rule  XII.— Verbs  Connected. 

When  verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction,  they  must 
either  agree  in  mood,  tense,  and  form,  or  have  separate 
nominatives  expressed  ;  as,  "  He  himself  held  the  plough, 
sowed  the  grain,  and  attended  the  reapers." — "  She  was 
proud,  but  she  is  now  humble." 

Exception. 

Verbs  differing  in  mood,  tense,  or  form,  may  sometimes  agree  with 
the  same  nominative,  especially  if  the  simplest  verbs  be  placed  first ;  as, 
"What  nothing  earthly  gives  or  can  destroy." — Pope. 
"Some  are,  and  must  be,  greater  than  the  rest."— Id. 

Observation. 

Those  parts  which  are  common  to  several  verbs,  are  generally  ex* 
pressed  to  the  first,  and  understood  to  the  rest;  as,  "Every  sincere  en- 
deavor to  amend  shall  be  assisted,  [shall  be]  accepted,  and  [shall  be] 
rewarded." — "Honorably  do  the  best  you  can"  [do]. — "He  thought  as 
I  did"  [think].— "You  have  seen  it,  but  I  have  not"  [seen  it].— "If 
you  go,  I  will "  [go]. 

Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

I. — The  preterit  should  not  be  employed  to  form  the  com- 
pound tenses,  nor  should  the  perfect  participle  be  used  for 
the  preterit.     Thus  say,  "To  have  gone,"  —  not,    "To  havq 
went ;  "  and,  "  I  did  it,"— not,  "  I  done  it." 
1* 


178  SYNTAX. 

IL — Care  should  be  taken  to  give  every  verb  its  appropriate 
form  and  signification.      Thus  say,  "He  lay  by  the  fire,"- 
not,  "He  laid  by  the  fire;" — "He  had  entered  into  the  con- 
nection,"— not,  "He  was  entered  into  the  connection;" — "I 
would  rather  stay" — not,  "  I  had  rather  stay" 

OBS. — Several  verbs  which  resemble  each  other  in  form,  are  fre- 
quently confounded:  as,  to  flee,  to  fly ;  to  lay,  to  lie;  to  sit,  to  set;  to 
fall,  to  fell;  to  rend,  to  rent;  to  ride,  to  rid,  etc.  Some  others  are 
often  misapplied ;  as,  learn  for  teach.  There  are  also  erroneous  forms 
of  some  of  the  compound  tenses;  as,  "We  will  be  convinced,"  for,  "We 
shall  be  convinced."— "If  I  had  have  seen  him,"  for,  "If  I  had  seen 
him."  All  such  errors  are  to  be  corrected  by  the  foregoing  note. 

False  Syntax. 

OBS. — Errors  under  this  rule  may  generally  be  corrected  in  three 
ways :  1.  By  changing  the  first  verb,  to  agree  with  the  second ;  2.  By 
changing  the  second  verb,  to  agree  with  the  first ;  3.  By  inserting  the 
nominative. 

EXAMPLE. — They  would  neither  go  in  themselves,  nor  suf- 
fered others  to  enter. 

FOBMOTJE.— Xot  proper,  because  the  two  verbs  would  go  and  suffered,  which  are  con- 
nected by  separate  nominatives,  do  not  agree  in  mood.  But,  according  to  Kule  XII., 
~~"  When  verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction,  they  must  either  agree  in  mood,  tense, 
and  form,  or  have  separate  nominatives  expressed."  The  sentence  is  best  corrected  by 
changing  suffered  to  would  suffer  (would  understood) ;  thus,  They  would  neither  go  in 
themselves,  nor  suffer  others  to  enter. 

He  will  fail,  and  therefore  should  not  undertake  it. 

"Doth  he  not  leave  the  ninety  and  nine,  and  goeth  into  the 
mountains,  and  seeketh  that  which  is  gone  astray  ? 

Did  he  not  tell  thee  his  fault,  and  entreated  thee  to  forgive 
"him? 

If  he  understands  the  business,  and  attend  to  it,  wherein  is  he 
deficient  ? 

The  day  is  approaching,  and  hastens  upon  us,  in  which  we 
must  give  an  account  of  our  stewardship. 

If  thou  dost  not  turn  unto  the  Lord,  but  forget  him  who  re- 
membered thee  in  thy  distress,  great  will  be  thy  con- 
demnation. 


AGREEMENT.  179 

There  are  a  few  who  have  kept  their  integrity  to  the  Lord, 
and  prefer  his  truth  to  all  other  enjoyments. 

This  report  was  current  yesterday,  and  agrees  with  what  we 
heard  before. 

Virtue  is  generally  praised,  and  would  be  generally  practiced 
also,  if  men  were  wise. 

I. 

He  would  have  went  with  us,  if  we  had  invited  him. 
They  have  chose  the  part  of  honor  and  virtue. 
He  soon  begun  to  be  weary  of  having  nothing  to  do. 
Somebody  has  broke  my  slate. 
I  seen  him  when  he  done  it. 

n. 

He  was  entered  into  the  conspiracy. 
The  Southern  planters  grow  cotton  and  rice. 
The  report  is  predicated  on  truth. 
I  entered  the  room  and  set  down. 
Go  and  lay  down,  my  son. 

With  such  books,  it  will  always  be  difficult  to  kara  children 
to  read. 


Rule  XIII — Subject  and  Attribute. 

Active-intransitive,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs,  and  their 
participles,  take  the  same  case  after  as  'before  them,  when 
both  words  refer  to  the  same  thing ;  as,  "  He  returned  a 
friend^  who  came  a/00." — Pope.  "  The  child  was  named 
John,?— "It  could  not  be  he? 

Observations. 

1.  This  rule,  as  one  of  agreement,  may  be  more  simply  stated  : — The 
attribute  agrees  in  case  with  the  subject. 

2.  The  neuter  verb  be,  that  connects  the  subject  and  the  attribute,  is 
called  the  copida,  because  it  couples,  or  joins  together,  these  two  parts 
of  the  sentence.     In  the  case  of  other  verbs,  the  copula  may  be  supplied 
by  changing  the  form:  as,  "The  child  sleeps;"  equivalent  to,  "The 
child  is  sleeping." 


180  SYNTAX. 

3.  The  verb  to  be,  in  most  cases,  only  affirms,  Or  indicates  Otherwise, 
the  connection  existing  between  the  subject  and  the  attribute.     When 
the  latter  is  a  noun,  it  may  express — 1.  Class ;  as,  "Cain  was  a  mur- 
derer."   2.  Identity;  as,  "Cain  was  the  murderer  of  Abel."    3.  Name; 
as,  "The  child  was  called  John."    When  mere  existence  is  predicated, 
the  verb  be  comprehends  both  the  predicate  and  the  attribute. 

4.  Class,  identity,  name,  or  quality  may  be  attributed  to  the  subject  in 
various  ways : 

1.  By  affirming  directly  a  connection  between  it  and  the  subject,  as 

in  the  preceding  examples. 

2.  By  affirming  it  to  belong  to  the  subject,   in  connection  with  a 

particular  act  or  state  of  being  ;  as,  "  She  looked  a  goddess,  and 
she  walked  a  queen."—"  The  sun  stood  still." 

3.  By  affirming  a  connection,  as  the  result  of  a  change  ;  as,  "  He 

has  become  a  scholar." 

4.  By  affirming  a  connection,  as  the  result  of  a  process;  as,  "He 

loos  elected  President." — "  The  twig  Jias  grown  a  tree." 

5.  The  attribute  is  often  used  indefinitely,  that  is,  without  reference 
to  any  particular  subject;  as,  "To  be  good  is  to  be  happy." — "To  be  a 
poet  requires  genius."     In  analyzing,  this  may  be  called  the  indefinite 
attribute. 

6.  An  attribute  is  sometimes  indirectly  affirmed  of,  or  otherwise  con- 
nected with,  the  object  of  a  verb  ;  as,  "  They  elected  him  president." — 
"Vice  has  left  him  without  friends"  (i.  e. ,  friendless}.     This  is  to  be 
considered  as  a  modification  of  the  predicate,  and  may  be  properly 
called  the  indirect  attribute. 

7.  The  conjunction  as  is  often  employed  to  express  the  connection  be- 
tween the  attribute  and  the  subject  or  object  to  which  it  refers ;  as, 
"  She  was  known  as  Curiosity." — "  They  engaged  her  as  a  governess." 

8.  In  interrogative  sentences,  the  terms  are  usually  transposed,  or 
]x>th  are  placed  after  the  verb ;  as, 

"  Whence,  and  what  art  thoit,  execrable  shape  ?  " — MUton. 

"  Art  thou  that  traitor  angel  ?  Art  thou  lid  ?  "—Idem. 
And  in  a  declarative  sentence,  there  may  be  a  rhetorical  or  poetical 
transposition  of  the  terms  ;  as,  "I  was  eyes  to  the  blind,  and.  feet  was  / 
to  the  lame." — Job,  xxix. 

"  Far  other  scene  is  TJirasymene  now." — Byron. 

9.  In  some  peculiar  constructions,  both  words  naturally  come  before 
the  verb  ;  as,  "I  know  not  who  she  is." — "  Inquire  thou  whose  son  the 
^tripling  is." — 1  Sam.,  xvii.     "  Man  would  not  be  the  creature  which 
fa  now  is."— Blair.    "  I  could  not  guess  who  it  should  be."— 


AGREEMENT.  181 

And  they  are  sometimes  placed  in  this  manner  by  hyperbaton,  or  trans- 
position ;  as,  "Yet  He  it  is." — Young.  "No  contemptible  orator  he 
was." — Blair. 

10.  When  the  attribute  is  used  with  infinitives  or  participles,  care 
must  be  taken  to  refer  it  to  its  proper  subject,  so  as  to  determine  its 
case  by  agreement.  Sometimes  the  attribute,  in  such  constructions,  is 
indirect  or  indefinite,  and  sometimes  it  agrees  with  a  preceding  objec- 
tive, which  is  the  subject  of  the  infinitive.  Examples:  "  Who  then 
can  bear  the  thought  of  being  an  outcast  from  his  presence  ?  " — Addison. 
"  /cannot  help  being  so  passionate  an  admirer  as  I  am." — Steele.  "  To 
affect  to  be  a  lord  in  one's  closet,  would  be  a  romantic  madness."  Here 
lord  is  indefinite. 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — We  did  not  know  that  it  was  him. 

FOBMITLE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  him,  which  belongs  after  the  neuter  verb 
was,  is  in  the  objective  case,  and  does  not  agree  with  the  pronoun  it,  which  belongs  be- 
fore it  as  the  nominative ;  both  words  referring  to  the  same  thing.  But,  according  to 
Rule  XIII.,  "Active-intransitive,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs,  and  their  participles,  take 
the  same  case  after  as  before  them,  when  both  words  refer  to  the  same  thing."  There- 
fore, him  should  be  he  ;  thus,  We  did  not  know  that  it  was  he. 

We  thought  it  was  thee. 
I  would  act  the  same  part,  if  I  were  him. 
It  could  not  have  been  her. 
It  is  not  me,  that  he  is  angry  with. 
They  believed  it  to  be  I. 
It  was  thought  to  be  him. 
If  it  had  been  her,  she  would  have  told  us. 
We  know  it  to  be  they. 
Whom  do  you  think  it  is  ?     . 
Who  do  you  suppose  it  to  be  ? 
We  did  not  know  whom  they  were. 
Thou  art  him  whom  they  described. 
Impossible  !  it  can't  be  me. 
Whom  did  he  think  you  were  ? 
Whom  say  ye  that  I  am  ? 
Art  thou  him  whom  they  say  thou  art  ? 

If  I  had  known  it  to  be  she,  I  should  have  spoken  to  her  in  a 
very  different  manner. 


182  SYNTAX. 

Parsing. 

Parse  each  of  the  attributes  in  the  above  sentences,  and  in  the  following. 
EXAMPLE  1.—"  They  said  it  was  he." 

He  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender,  and 
in  the  nominative  case,  agreeing  with  the  subject  it ;  according  to  the  rule, — Active-in- 
transitive, passive,  and  neuter  verbs,  etc. 

EXAMPLE  2.—"  Whom  do  they  think  him  to  be  ?  " 

Whom  is  an  interrogative  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine 
gender,  and  in  the  objective  case,  agreeing  with  him;  according  to  the  rule,  etc.;  the 
grammatical  order,  when  transposed,  being,  They  think  him  to  be  whom,  equivalent  to, 
They  think  that  he  is  who  ;  or,  in  the  proper  order,  Who  do  they  think  that  he  is  ? 

A  region  of  repose  it  seems.  The  southwest  wind  blew  fresh  and  fair. 
Make  not  thyself  the  judge  of  any  man.  He  prized  what  others  looked 
upon  as  trifles.  He  was  fond  of  being  the  champion  of  innocence.  To 
be  an  upright  man  is  better  than  to  be  a  millionaire.  To  affect  to  be 
a  scholar  is  to  prove  yourself  a  pedant.  For  a  man  to  be  a  true 
patriot,  he  must  be  willing  to  die  for  his  country.  It  is  not  I  that  he  ia 
provoked  at. 


Rule  XIV.— Pronoun  and  Antecedent. 

A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  or  the  noun 
or  pronoun  which  it  represents,  in  person,  number,  and 
gender ;  as,  "  7,  who  am  your  friend,  will  aid  you." 

Exceptions. 

1.  When  a  pronoun  stands  for  some  person  or  thing  indefinite  or  un- 
known to  the  speaker,  this  rule  is  not  strictly  applicable ;  because  the 
person,  number,  and  gender,  are  rather  assumed  than  regulated  by  an 
antecedent ;  as,  "  I  do  not  care  who  knows  it." — Steele.     "  Who  touched 
me  ?    Tell  me  who  it  was." 

2.  The  neuter  pronoun  it  may  be  applied  to  a  young  child,  or  to  other 
creatures  masculine  or  feminine  by  nature,  when  they  are  not  obviously 
distinguishable  with  regard  to  sex ;  as,  "  Which  is  the  real  friend  to  the 
child,  the  person  who  gives  it  the  sweetmeats,  or  the  person  who,  con- 
sidering only  its  health,  resists  its  importunities  ?  " — Opie.     "  He  loads 
the  animal,  he  is  showing  me,  with  so  many  trappings  and  collars,  that 
I  cannot  distinctly  view  it." — Murray.     "The  nightingale  sings  most 
sweetly  when  it  sings  in  the  night." — Burke. 


AGfcEEMEHT.  183 

8.  The  pronoun  it  is  often  used  without  a  definite  reference  to  any 
particular  person  or  thing  ;  as,  "  Whether  she  grapple  it  with  the  pride  of 
philosophy." — Chalmers.  "  Come,  and  trip  it  as  you  go." — Milton. 

4.  A  singular  antecedent  with  the  adjective  many,  sometimes  admits 
a  plural  pronoun,  but  never  in  the  same  clause  ;  as, 

"  In  Hawick  twinkled  many  a  light, 
Behind  him  soon  they  set  in  night." — Scott. 

5.  When  a  plural  pronoun  is  put  by  enallage  for  the  singular,  it  does 
not  agree  with  its  noun  in  number,  because  it  still  requires  a  plural 
verb;  as,  "  We  [Lindley  Murray]  have  followed  those  authors." — Mur- 
ray.    "We  shall  close  our  remarks  on  this  subject." — Ib.     "My  lord, 
you  know  I  love  you.'1'1 — Shakspeare. 

Observations. 

1.  While  every  pronoun  must  represent  some  noun  or  pronoun,  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  it  is  only  the  relative  pronoun  that  necessarily 
has  an  antecedent  (word  going  before).     The  pronoun  must  always  agree 
with  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  represents,  whether  it  be  an  anteced- 
ent or  not.     The  antecedent  of  a  relative  pronoun  is  always  in  the  same 
sentence  ;  but  it  is  in  the  principal  clause,  while  the  relative  is  in  the 
dependent  clause. 

2.  The  pronoun  we  is  used  by  the  speaker  to  represent  himself  and 
others,  and  is  therefore  plural.     But  it  is  sometimes  used,  by  a  sort  of 
fiction,  instead  of  the  singular,  to  intimate  that  the  speaker  is  not  alone  in 
his  opinions.     Monarchs  sometimes  join  it  to  a  singular  noun;  as,  "  We 
Alexander,  Autocrat  of  all  the  Russias."     They  also  employ  the  com- 
pound ourself,  which  is  not  used  by  other  people. 

3.  When  a  pronoun  represents  the  name  of  an  inanimate  object  per- 
sonified, it  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  the  figurative,  and  not  in  the 
literal  sense  ;  [See  the  figure  Syllepsis,  in  PART  IV.]  as, 

*'  Penance  dreams  Jier  life  away." — Rogers. 

"  Grim  Darkness  furls  his  leaden  shroud." — Id. 

4.  When  the  antecedent  is  applied  metaphorically,  the  pronoun  agrees 
with  it  in  its  literal,  and  not  in  its  figurative  sense  ;  as,  "Pitt  was  the 
pillar  which  upheld  the  state." — "The  monarch  of  mountains  rears  his 
snowy  head."     [See  Figures,  in  PART  IV.] 

5.  When  the  antecedent  is  put  by  metonymy  for  a  noun  of  different 
properties,  the  pronoun  sometimes  agrees  with  it  in  the  figurative,  and 
sometimes  in  the   literal  sense;  as,    "And  heaven  beholds  its  image 
in  his  breast." — Pope. 

"  The  wolf,  who  [that]  from  the  nightly  fold, 
Fierce  drags  the  bleating  prey,  ne'er  drunk  her  milk, 
Nor  wore  her  warming  fleece." — Thomson. 


184  SYNTAX 

6.  When  the  antecedent  is  put  "by  synecdoche  for  more  or  less  than  it 
literally  signifies,  the  pronoun  agrees  with  it  in  the  figurative,  and  not 
in  the  literal  sense  ;  as, 

"  A  dauntless  soul  erect,  who  smiled  on  death." — Thomson. 

7.  Pronouns  usually  follow  the  words  which  they  represent ;  but  this 
order  is  sometimes  reversed  ;  as,  "  Whom  the  cap  fits,  let  him  put  it  on." 
— "  Hark !   they  whisper  ;  angels  say,"  etc. 

8.  A  pronoun  sometimes  represents  a  phrase  or  sentence  ;  and  in  this 
case,  the  pronoun  is  always  in  the  third  person  singular  neuter ;    as, 
"  She  is  very  handsome  ;  and  she  has  the  misfortune  to  know  it."    "  Yet 
men  can  go  on  to  vilify  or  disregard  Christianity  ;  which  is  to  talk  and 
act  as  if  they  had  a  demonstration  of  its  falsehood. " — Bp.  Butler. 

9.  After  the  pronoun  it,  used  indefinitely,  and  followed  by  a  pronoun 
of  any  person,  number,  or  gender,  as  the  attribute,  the  relative  usually 
is  made  to  agree  with  the  latter  instead  of  .the  former  ;  as,  "  It  is  not  I 
that  have  done  it."     This  construction  is  anomalous. 

10.  The  pronoun  it  is  often  used  to  represent  an  explanatory  phrase 
or  clause   coming  after  the  verb  ;  as,  "  It  is  impossible  to  please  every 
one." — "  It  was  requisite  iliat  the  papers  should  be  sent." 

11.  In  familiar  language,  the  relative  in  the  objective  case  is  fre- 
quently understood;  as,  " Here  is  the  letter  [which]  I  received."     The 
omission  of  the  relative  in  the  nominative  case,  is  inelegant ;  as,  "This 
is  the  worst  thing  [£/£&£]  could  happen."     The  latter  ellipsis  sometimes 
occurs  in  poetry  ;  as,  "  In  this  'tis  God  directs,  in  that  'tis  man." — Pope. 

12.  The  antecedent  is  sometimes  suppressed,  especially  in  poetry ;  as, 
"  How  shall  I  curse  [him  or  them]  whom  God  hath  not  cursed  ?  " — 
Numb.,  xxiii. 

[Se]  : '  Who  lives  to  nature,  rarely  can  be  poor ; 

[He]     Who  lives  to  fancy,  never  can  be  rich." — Young. 

13.  What  is  sometimes  used  adverbially ;  as,    "Though  I  forbear, 
irJiat  am  I  eased?" — Job.     That  is,  how  much?  or  wherein?     "The 
enemy  having  his  country  wasted,  what  by  himself  and  what  by  the 
soldiers,   findeth  succor  in    no  place." — Spenser.       Here  what  means 
partly — "  wasted  partly  by  himself  and.  partly  by  the  soldiers." 

14.  What  is  sometimes  used  as  a  mere  interjection  ;  as, 
"Wtiatf  this  a  sleeve  ?  'Tis  like  a  demi-canon."— Shakspeare. 
"  What!  can  you  lull  the  winged  winds  asleep  ? "—Campbell. 

15.  As  frequently  has  the  force  of  a  relative  pronoun;  as,  "Avoid 
such  aw  are  vicious."— "But  to  as  many  as  received  him,"  etc. — "He 
then  read  the  conditions  as  follow."    But  when  a  clause  or  a  sentence  is 


AGREEMENT.  185 

the  antecedent,  it  is  better  to  consider  as  a  conjunction,  and  to  supply 
the  pronoun  it;  as,  "He  is  angry,  as  [it]  appears  by  this  letter." 

16.  But  sometimes  seems  to  have  the  force  of  a  relative  and  a  nega- 
tive ;  as,  "  Who  is  there  but  would  pity  them  ?  "  Here  but  is  equivalent 
to  that  not. 

Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

I. — A  pronoun  should  not  be  introduced  in  connection  with 
words  that  belong  more  properly  to  the  antecedent,  or  to  an 
other  pronoun ;  as, 

"My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees." — Shenstone. 

•  tf 

OBS. — This  is  only  an  example  of  pleonasm,  which  is  allowable  and 
frequent  in  animated  discourse,  but  inelegant  in  any  other.  [See  Pleo- 
nasm, in  PART  IV.] 

IE. — A  change  of  number  in  the  second  person  is  inelegant 
and  improper  ;  as,  "You  wept,  and  I  for  thee" 

OBS. — Poets  have  sometimes  adopted  this  solecism,  to  avoid  the  harsh- 
ness of  the  verb  in  the  second  person  singular ;  as, 
"As,  in  that  loved  Athenian  bower, 
Tou  learn'  d  an  all  commanding  power, 
Thy  mimic  soul,  O  nymph  endear'd  I 
Can  well  recall  what  then  it  heard." — CoUins. 

HE. — The  relative  who  is  applied  only  to  persons,  and  to 
animals  personified ;  and  which,  to  brute  animals  and  inani- 
mate things:  as,  "The  judge  who  presided;" — "The  old 
crab  who  advised  the  young  one  ; " — "  The  horse  which  ran  ;  " 
• — "  The  book  which  was  given  me." 

OBS. —  Which,  as  well  as  who,  was  formerly  applied  to  persons;  as, 
"Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven." — Bible.  It  may  still  he  applied  to 
a  young  child  ;  as,  ' '  The  child  which  died. " — Or  even  to  adults,  when 
they  are  spoken  of  without  regard  to  a  distinct  personality  or  identity ; 
as,  "Which  of  you  will  go?" — "Crabb  knoweth  not  which  is  which, 
himself  or  his  parodist." — Leigh  Hunt. 


186  SYNTAX 

IV. — Nouns  of  multitude,  unless  they  express  persons  di- 
rectly as  such,  should  not  be  represented  by  the  relative  who  : 
to  say,  "  The  family  whom  I  visited,"  would  hardly  be  proper  ; 
that  would  here  be  better.  When  such  nouns  are  strictly  of 
the  neuter  gender,  which  may  represent  them  ;  as,  "  The 
committees  which  were  appointed." 

V. — A  proper  name  taken  merely  as  a  name,  or  an  appella- 
tive taken  in  any  sense  not  strictly  personal,  must  be  repre- 
sented by  which,  and  not  by  who ;  as,  "Herod — which  is  but 
another  name  for  cruelty." 

VL — The  relative  that  may  be  applied  either  to  persons  or 
to  things.  In  the  following  cases  it  is  generally  preferable  to 
who  or  which,  unless  it  be  necessary  to  use  a  preposition  be- 
fore the  relative  : — 

1.  After  an  adjective  of  the  superlative  degree,  when  the  relative 
introduces  a  modifying  clause  ;  as,  "  He  was  the  first  tJiat  came." 

2.  After  the  adjective  same,  to  explain  its  import ;  as,  "  This  is  the 
same  person  that  I  met  before." 

3.  After  the  antecedent  who;  as,  "  Who  that  has  common  sense,  can 
think  so  ?  " 

4.  After  a  joint  reference  to  persons  and  things;  as,  "He  spoke  of 
e  mm  and  things  that  he  had  seen." 

5.  After  an  unlimited  antecedent,  which  the  relative  and  its  verb 
are  to  restrict ;  as,  "  Thoughts  that  breathe,  and  words  that  burn." 

6.  After  an  antecedent  introduced  by  the  expletive  it;  as,  "  It  is  you 
that  command."—  "It  was  I  that  did  it." 

7.  And,  in  general,  where  the  propriety  of  who  or  which  is  doubtful ; 
as,  "  The  little  child  that  was  placed  in  the  midst." 

VIE. — When  several  relative  clauses  come  in  succession,  and 
have  a  similar  dependence  in  respect  to  the  antecedent,  the 
same  pronoun  must  be  employed  in  each  ;  as,  "  O  thou  who 
art,  and  who  wast,  and  who  art  to  come  !  " 

VJJLL — The  relative,  and  the  preposition  governing  it,  should 
not  be  omitted  when  they  are  necessary  to  give  connection  to 
the  sentence  ;  as,  "  He  is  still  in  the  situation  [in  which]  you 
saw  him." 

IX. — An  adverb  should  not  be  used  where  a  preposition  and 


AGREEMENT.  187 

a  relative  pronoun  would  better  express  the  relation  of  the 
terms;  as,  "  A  cause  where  [for  in  which]  justice  is  so  much 
concerned." 

X. — Where  a  pronoun  or  a  pronominal  adjective  will  not 
express  the  meaning  clearly,  the  noun  must  be  repeated,  or 
inserted  instead  of  it.  Example :  "  We  see  the  beautiful 
variety  of  color  in  the  rainbow,  and  are  led  to  consider  the 
cause  of  it "  [that  variety]. 

XL — To  prevent  ambiguity  or  obscurity,  the  relative  should 
be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  antecedent.  The  follow- 
ing sentence  is  therefore  faulty  :  "  He  is  like  a  beast  of  prey, 
that  is  void  of  compassion."  Better  :  "  He  that  is  void  of 
compassion,  is  like  a  beast  of  prey." 

XII. — The  pronoun  what  should  never  be  used  instead  of 
the  conjunction  that ;  as,  "He  will  not  believe  but  what  I  am 
to  blame."  What  should  be  that. 

Xm. — A  pronoun  should  not  be  used  to  represent  an 
adjective;  because  it  can  neither  express  a  concrete  quality 
as  such,  nor  convert  it  properly  into  an  abstract.  Exam- 
ple :  "  Be  attentive  ;  without  which  you  will  learn  nothing." 
Better  :  "  Be  attentive  ;  for  without  attention  you  will  learn 
nothing." 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — No  person  should  be  censured  for  being  care- 
ful of  their  reputation. 

FORMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  their  is  of  the  plural  number,  and  does 
not  correctly  represent  its  antecedent  noun  person,  which  is  of  the  third  person,  singular, 
masculine.  But,  according  to  Rule  XIV.,  "  A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent, 
01-  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  represents,  in  person,  number,  and  gender/'  There- 
fore, their  should  be  Ms ;  thus,  No  person  should  be  censured  for  being  careful  of  his 
reputation.  [See  Obs.  2,  under  Rule  XVI.] 

Every  one  must  judge  of  their  own  feelings. 

C.Ji  any  person,  on  their  entrance  into  the  world,  be  fully 

secure  that  they  shall  not  be  deceived  ? 
He  cannot  see  one  in  prosperity  without  envying  them. 
I  gave  him  oats,  but  he  would  not  eat  it. 


188  SYNTAX. 

Kebecca  took  goodly  raiment,  and  put  them  on  Jacob. 
Take  up  the  tongs,  and  put  it  in  its  place. 
Let  each  esteem  others  better  than  themselves. 
A  person  may  make  themselves  happy  without  riches. 
Every  man  should  try  to  provide  for  themselves. 
The  mind  of  man  should  not  be  left  without  something  on 
which  to  employ  his  energies. 


Many  words  they  darken  speech. 

These  praises  he  then  seemed  inclined  to  retract  them. 

These  people  they  are  all  very  ignorant. 

Asa  his  heart  was  perfect  with  the  Lord. 

Who  instead  of  going  about  doing  good,  they  are  perpetually 

intent  upon  doiDg  mischief. 
Whom  ye  delivered  up,  and  denied  him  in  the  presence  of 

Pontius  Pilate. — Acts. 
Whom,  when  they  had  washed,  they  laid  her  in  an  upper 

chamber. — Acts. 

What  I  have  mentioned  there  are  witnesses  of  the  fact. 
What  he  said  he  is  now  sorry  for  it 
The  empress,  approving  these  conditions,  she  immediately 

ratified  them. 
This  incident,  though  it  appears  improbable,  yet  I  cannot 

doubt  the  author's  veracity. 

IL 

Thou  art  my  father's  brother,  else  would  I  reprove  you. 

Your  weakness  is  excusable,  but  thy  wickedness  is  not. 

Now,  my  son,  I  forgive  thee,  and  freely  pardon  your  fault. 
You  draw  the  inspiring  breath  of  ancient  song, 
Till  nobly  rises  emulous  thy  own. — Thomson. 

m. 

This  is  the  horse  whom  my  father  imported. 

Those  are  the  birds  whom  we  call  gregarious. 

He  has  two  brothers,  one  of  which  I  am  acquainted  with. 

What  was  that  creature  whom  Job  called  leviathan? 


AGREEMENT.  189 

Those  which  desire  to  be  safe,  should  be  careful  to  do  that 

which  is  right. 
A  butterfly  which  thought  himself  an  accomplished  traveler, 

happened  to  light  upon  a  bee-hive. 
There  was  a,  certain  householder  which  planted  a  vineyard. 

IV. 

The  races  who  anciently  invaded  Europe  were  Aryans. 

The  court,  who  has  great  influence  upon  the  public  manners, 
ought  to  be  very  exemplary. 

The  Persian  armies  whom  the  Greeks  defeated  had  been  con- 
sidered invincible. 

*-  V. 

Judas  (who  is  now  another  name  for  treachery)  betrayed  his 
master  with  a  kiss. 

He  alluded  to  Phalaris — who  is  a  name  for  all  that  is  cruel 

YL 

He  was  the  first  who  entered. 

He  was  the  drollest  fellow  whom  I  ever  saw. 

This  is  the  same  man  whom  we  saw  before. 

Who  is  she  who  comes  clothed  in  a  robe  of  green  ? 

The  wife  and  fortune  whom  he  gained,  did  not  aid  him. 

Men  who  are  avaricious  never  have  enough. 

All  which  I  have  is  thine. 

Was  it  thou  or  the  wind  who  shut  the  door  ? 

It  was  not  I  who  shut  it. 

The  babe  who  was  in  the  cradle  appeared  to  be  healthy. 

vn. 

He  is  a  man  that  knows  what  belongs  to  good  manners,  and 

who  will  not  do  a  dishonorable  act. 
The  friend  who  was  here,  and  that  entertained  us  so  much, 

will  never  be  able  to  visit  us  again. 
The  curiosities  which  he  has  brought  home,  and  that  we  shall 

have  the  pleasure  of  seeing,  are  said  to  be  very  rare. 

VOL 

Observe  them  in  the  order  they  stand. 

We  proceeded  immediately  to  the  place  we  were  directed. 


190  SYNTAX. 

My  companion  remained  a  week  in  the  state  I  left 
The  way  I  do  it,  is  this. 

IX. 

Remember  the  condition  whence  thou  art  rescued. 

I  know  of  no  rule  how  it  may  be  done. 

He  drew  up  a  petition,  where  he  too  freely  represented  his 

own  merits. 
The  hour  is  hastening,  when  whatever  praise  or  censure  I  have 

acquired,  will  be  remembered  with  equal  indifference. 

X. 

Many  will  acknowledge  the  excellence  of  religion,  who  cannot 

tell  wherein  it  consists. 

Every  difference  of  opinion  is  not  that  of  principle. 
Next  to  the  knowledge  of  God,  this  of  ourselves  seems  most 

worthy  of  our  endeavor. 

XL 

Thou  art  thyself  the  man  that  committed  the  act,  who  hast 

thus  condemned  it. 
There  is  a  certain  majesty  in  simplicity,  which  is  far  above 

the  quaintness  of  wit. 

Thou  hast  no  right  to  judge  who  art  a  party  concerned. 
It  is  impossible  for  such  men  as  those,  ever  to  determine  this 

question,  who  are  likely  to  get  the  appointment. 
There  are  millions  of  people  in  the  empire  of  China,  whose 

support  is  derived  almost  entirely  from  rice. 

xn. 

I  had  no  idea  but  what  the  story  was  true. 

The  post-boy  is  not  so  weary  but  what  he  can  whistle. 

He  had  no  intimation  but  what  the  men  were  honest. 

YTTT 

Some  men  are  too  ignorant  to  be  humble ;  without  which, 

there  can  be  no  docility. 
Judas  declared  him  innocent,  which  he  could  not  be,  had  he 

in  any  respect  deceived  the  disciples. 


AGREEMENT.  191 

Be  accurate  in  all  you  say  or  do,  for  it  is  important  in  all  the 
concerns  of  life. 

Every  law  supposes  the  transgressor  to  be  wicked,  which  in- 
deed he  is,  if  the  law  is  just. 

Promiscuous. 

Did  you  commit  the  same  mistake  which  I  corrected  you  for? 
Let  every  one  of  them  attend  to  their  own  affairs. 
The  elephant  whom  they  have  tamed  was  brought  from  Africa. 
That  is  the  worst  crime  which  could  have  been  perpetrated. 
They  should  have  no  aid  from  others  who  are  negligent  and 

slothful.  f. 

Solomon  was  the  wisest  man  whom  the  world  ever  saw. 
All  which  beauty,  all  which  wealth  ever  bestowed  must  finally 

pass  away. 

Do  unto  others  as  thou  wouldst  have  others  do  unto  you. 
Thou  art  the  man  who  hast  committed  the  crime,  but  it  is  I 

who  has  suffered. 
The  man  was  arrested  by  the  officers  who  committed  that 

dreadful  deed. 

Parsing. 

Parse  all  the  pronouns  in  the  sentences  of  the  preceding  exercise,  and  in 
the  following. 

EXAMPLE. — "  I  that  speak  unto  tliee  am  he." 

I  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender  (from 
the  context),  and  the  nominative  case,  being  the  subject  of  the  verb  am,  according  to  the 
rule, — A  noun  or  pronoun,  etc. 

That  is  a  relative  pronoun,  and  agrees  with  its  antecedent  /  in  the  first  person,  singu- 
lar number,  and  masculine  gender,  according  to  the  rule,— A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its 
antecedent,  etc. ;  it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  speak  ; 
according  to  the  rule,  etc. 

Thee  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  second  person,  singular  number,  common  in  gender, 
and  in  the  objective  case,  being  the  object  of  the  preposition  unto. 

He  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender,  and 
the  nominative  case,  being  the  attribute  after  am,  and  agreeing  with  the  subject  I;  ac- 
cording to  the  rule, — Active-intransitive,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs,  etc. 

All  that  live  must  die.  Thrice  is  he  armed  that  hath  his  quarrel  just. 
There  is  no  law  but  can  be  evaded.  Who  reasons  wisely  is  not  always  wise. 
Let  such,  teach  others  who  themselves  excel.  What  will  become  pf  ug 


192  SYNTAX. 

without  religion  ?  He  who  does  what  he  knows  to  be  wrong  is  a  sinner. 
Let  him  be  who  he  may,  he  is  not  the  person  that  he  seemed.  What 
are  we  to  do  ?  Whom  did  you  suppose  me  to  be  ?  Call  imperfections 
what  thou  fanciest  such.  He  gave  freedom  to  such  as  desired  it. 
Thou  who  speakest  to  me  art  she.  Whatsoever  he  doeth  shall  prosper 


Rule  XV.— Collective  Antecedent. 

When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the 
idea  of  plurality,  the  pronoun  must  agree  with  it  in  the 
plural  number ;  but  when  it  conveys  the  idea  of  unity, 
the  pronoun  must  be  singular ;  as,  "  The  council  disagreed 
in  their  sentiments." — "  The  nation  will  enforce  its  laws." 

[See  Observation  under  Rule  IX.] 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — The  jury  will  be  confined  till  it  agrees  on  a 
verdict. 

FOEMTTLE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  it  is  of  the  singular  number,  and  does 
not  correctly  represent  its  antecedent  jury,  which  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the 
idea  of  plurality.  But,  according  to  Rule  XV.,  "When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective 
noun,  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality,  the  pronoun  must  agree  with  it  in  the  plural 
number."  Therefore,  it  should  be  they  ;  thus,  The  jury  will  be  confined  till  tltey  agree 
on  a  verdict. 

In  youth,  the  multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure,  as  if  it  were 

its  chief  good. 
The  council  was  not  unanimous,  and  it  separated  without  any 

decision. 

This  court  is  famous  for  the  justice  of  their  decisions. 
I  saw  all  the  species  thus  delivered  from  its  sorrows. 
A  strange  incident  happened  to  the  army,  and  put  it  in  great 

consternation. 

The  company  have  lost  several  of  their  members. 
A  nation  seldom  duly  reward  their  noblest  benefactors. 
The  new  board  of  directors  have  elected  their  officers. 
The  parliament  will  consider  the  matter  at  their  next  session. 
The  army  was  eating  its  dinner,  when  they  were  attacked  by 

the  enemy,  and  having  been  defeated,  a  large  part  of  it 

was  slain. 


AGREEMENT.  193 

The  convention  then  resolved  themselves  into  a  committee  of 

the  whole. 
The  crowd  was  so  great  that  the  judges  with  difficulty  made 

their  way  through  them. 

Parsing. 

Parse  each  pronoun  and  each  collective  noun  in  the  above  sentences. 


Rule  XVI. — Connected  Antecedents. 

When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  antecedents  connected 
by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  number ; 
as,  "  James  and  John  will  favor  us  with  their  company." 

Exceptions, 

1.  When  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by  and,  serve  merely  to 
describe  one  person  or  thing  ;  they  are  in  apposition,  and  do  not  require 
a  plural  pronoun  ;  as,  ' '  This  great  philosopher  and  statesman  continued 
in  public  life  till  his  eighty-second  year." 

2.  When  two  antecedents  connected  by  and  are  emphatically  distin- 
guished, they  belong  to  different  propositions,  and  (if  singular)  do  not 
require  a  plural  pronoun  ;  as,  "  Thebutler,  and  not  the  baker,  was  restored 
to  his  office." — "The  good  man,  and  the  sinner  too,  shall  have  his  re- 
ward." 

3.  When  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by  and  are  preceded  by 
the  adjective  eacli,  every,  or  no,  they  are  taken  separately,  and  do  not 
require  a  plural  pronoun;  as,  "Every  plant  and  every  tree  produces 
others  after  its  kind." 

Observations. 

1.  When  the  antecedents  are  of  different  persons,  the  first  person  is 
preferred  to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third ;  as,  "  John,  and 
thou,    and  I,    are   attached   to  our   country." — "John   and   thou  are 
attached  to  your  country. " 

2.  The  gender  of  pronouns,  except  in  the  third  person  singular,  is 
distinguished  only  by  their  antecedents.     In  expressing  that  of  a  pro- 
noun which  has  antecedents  of  different  genders,  the  masculine  should 
be  preferred  to  the  feminine,  and  the  feminine  to  the  neuter. 

[See  the  Notes  under  Rule  X.,  most  of  which  are  applicable  to  the  pronoun  as  well  ag 
to  the  verb,] 

18 


194  SYNTAX. 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — Discontent  and  sorrow  manifested  itself  in  his 
countenance. 

FORMTTLE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  itself  is  of  the  singular  number,  and 
does  not  correctly  represent  its  two  antecedents  discontent  and  sorrow,  which  are  con- 
nected by  find,  and  taken  conjointly.  But,  according  to  Rule  XVI.,  "When  a  pronoun 
has  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural 
number."  Therefore,  itself  nhould  be  themselves;  thus,  Discontent  and  sorrow  mani- 
fested themselves  in  his  countenance. 

Your  levity  and  heedlessness,  if  it  continue,  will  prevent  all 

substantial  improvement. 
Poverty  and  obscurity  will  oppress  him  only  who  esteems  it 

oppressive. 
Good  sense  and  refined  policy  are  obvious  to  few,  because 

it  cannot  be  discovered  but  by  a  train  of  reflection. 
Avoid  haughtiness  of  behavior,  and  affectation  of  manners :  it 

implies  a  want  of  solid  merit. 
If  love  and  unity  continue,  it  will  make  you  partakers  of  one 

another's  joy. 
Suffer  not  jealousy  and  distrust  to  enter :  it  will  destroy,  like 

a  canker,  every  germ  of  friendship. 
Hatred  and  animosity  are  inconsistent  with  Christian  charity ; 

guard,  therefore,  against  the  slightest  indulgence  of  it. 
Every  man  is  entitled  to  liberty  of  conscience,  and  freedom  of 

opinion,  if  he  does  not  pervert  it  to  the  injury  of  others. 
Every  plant,  every  flower,  and  every  insect,  show  the  wisdom 

of  their  Creator.     (Exception  3. ) 
Truth,  and  truth  only,  are  worth  seeking  for  their  own  sake. 

(Exception  2.) 

He  and  I  love  and  obey  their  parents.     (Obs.  1.) 
You,  your  brother,  and  I  must  attend  to  their  work. 
The  same  spirit,  light,  and  life  which  enlighten  also  sanctify. 

(Exception  1.) 

Parsing. 

Parse  each  of  the  pronouns  in  the  above  sentences^  when  corrected. 


AGREEMENT.  195 


Rule  XVII.— Connected  Antecedents. 

When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  singular  antecedents 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
singular  number ;  as,  "  James  or  John  will  favor  us  with 
his  company." 

Observations. 

1.  When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  plural  antecedents  connected  by 
or  or  nor,  it  is  of  course  plural,  and  agrees  with  them  severally.     To 
the  foregoing  rule,  there  are  properly  no  exceptions. 

2.  When  antecedents  of  different  persons,  numbers,  or  genders,  are 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  they  cannot,  with  strict  propriety,  be  repre- 
sented by  a  pronoun  that  is  not  applicable  to  each  of  them.     The  fol- 
lowing sentence  is  therefore  inaccurate  :   "Either  thou  01*  I  am  greatly 
mistaken  in  our  judgment  on  this  subject." — Murray's  Key.     But  dif- 
ferent pronouns  may  be  so  connected  as  to  refer  to  such  antecedents 
taken  separately ;  as,  "  By  requiring  greater  labor  from  such  slave  or 
slaves,  than  he  or  she  or  they  are  able  to  perform." — Prince's  Digest. 
Or,  if  the  gender  only  be  different,  the  masculine  may  involve  the 
feminine  by  implication  ;  as,  "  If  a  man  smite  the  eye  of  his  servant  or 
the  eye  of  his  maid  that  it  perish,  he  shall  let  him  go  free  for  his  eye's 
sake."— Exodus,  xxi.,  26. 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — Neither  wealth  nor  honor  can  secure  the  happi- 
ness of  their  votaries. 

FOBMULE.— Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  their  is  of  the  plural  number,  and  does 
not  correctly  represent  its  two  antecedents  wealth  and  honor,  which  are  connected  by 
nor,  and  taken  disjunctively.  But,  according  to  Rule  XVII.,  "When  a  pronoun  has  t\v> 
or  more  singular  antecedents  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  mupt  agree  with  them  in  the  sin- 
gular number."  Therefore,  their  should  be  its;  thus,  Neither  wealth  nor  honor  can 
secure  the  happiness  of  its  votaries. 

Neither  Sarah,  Ann,  nor  Jane,  has  performed  their  task. 

One  or  the  other  must  relinquish  their  claim. 

A  man  is  not  such  a  machine  as  a  clock  or  a  watch,  which 

will  move  only  as  they  are  moved. 
Rye  or  barley,  when  they  are  scorched,  may  supply  the  place 

of  coffee. 


196  SYNTAX. 

A  man  may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture  as  well 

as  read  them  in  a  description. 
Despise  no  infirmity  of  mind  or  body,  nor  any  condition  of 

life,  for  they  may  be  thy  own  lot. 
*  Have  you  seen  my  ox  or  my  cow,  which  have  strayed  from 

the  pasture  ? 
Neither  Sarah  nor  her  brother  Charles  seemed  to  know  their 

lessons. 
Either  you  or  I  must  be  mistaken  in  our  opinion. 

Parsing. 

Parse  att  the  pronouns  in  the  above  sentences,  when  corrected. 


III.— GOVERNMENT. 

Government  has  respect  only  to  nouns,  pronouns, 
verbs,  participles,  and  prepositions ;  the  other  five  parts  of 
speech  neither  govern  nor  are  governed.  The  governing 
words  may  be  either  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs,  participles,  or 
prepositions  ;  the  words  governed  are  either  nouns,  pronouns, 
verbs,  or  participles. 

Rule  XVI11. — Possessives. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  is  governed 
by  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed ;  as, 

"  Theirs  is  the  vanity,  the  learning  tliine ; 
Touch'd  by  tiiy  hand,  again  Rome's  glories  shine." 

Observations. 

1.  When  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case  is  used  as  an 
attribute,  it  is  governed  by  the  subject  to  which  it  relates;  as,  "The 
book  is  mine,  and  not  John's." 

2.  The  sign  of  the  possessive  is  omitted  in  some  appositive  or  connected 
terms;    as,   "In  her   brother  Absalom's  house." — "David  and  Jona- 
than's friendship." — "Adam  and  Eve's  morning  hymn." — "Behold, 
the  heaven,   and  the  heaven  of  heavens,  is  the  Lord's  thy 


GOVERNMENT.  197 

3.  Where  the  governing  noun  cannot  be  easily  mistaken,  it  is  often 
omitted  by  ellipsis  ;  as,  "  At  the  aldermen's  "  [house].— "  A  book  of  my 
brother's  "  [books]. — "  A  subject  of  the  emperor's  "  [subjects']. 

4.  The  possessive  sign  is  sometimes  annexed  to  that  part  of  a  com- 
pound name,  which  is,  of  itself,  in  the  objective  case  ;  as,  "The  cap- 
tain-of-the-guardjs    house." — Bible.      "The  Bar d-of- Lomond's    lay  is 
done." — Hogg.     "Of  the  Children-of-IsraeVs  half  thou  shalt  take  one 
portion." — Num.,  xxxi.     The  hyphens,  inserted  here  for  illustration, 
are  not  usually  employed.     In  the  following  phrase,  the  possessive  sign 
is  awkwarly  added  to  an  adjective:    "In  Henry  the  Eighth's  time." 
Better  :   "In  the  time  of  Henry  the  Eighth."    In  the  following  line,  the 
adjective  elegantly  takes  the  sign,  there  being  an  ellipsis  of  both  nouns : 

"  The  rich  man's  joys  increase,  the  poor's  decay." — Goldsmith. 

5.  To  avoid  ar  concurrence  of  hissing  sounds,  the  s  is  sometimes 
omitted,  and  the  apostrophe  alone  retained  to  mark  the  possessive  singu- 
lar;   as,    "For  conscience1  sake." — Bible.      "Moses'  minister."  —  Ibid. 
"Felti?  room."— Ibid.     "Achilles1   wra,ih."—Pope.     But  in  prose  the 
full  form  should  be  used. 

6.  A  participle  is  sometimes  used  to  govern  the  possessive  case,  while 
retaining  the  government  and  adjuncts  of  a  participle  ;  as,  "  This  will 
be  the  effect  of  the  pupil's  composing  frequently." — Murray.     "What 
can  be  the  reason  of  the  committee's  having  delayed  this  business  ?  " — Id. 
Sometimes  this  construction  is  awkward,  and  should  be  avoided.    Thus, 
it  would  be  better  to  say,  "  Why  have  the  committee  delayed  this  busi- 


Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

I. — In  the  use  of  the  possessive  case,  its  appropriate  form 
should  be  observed  ;  thus,  write  men's,  hers,  its,  ours,  yours, 
theirs  ;  and  not  mens',  her's,  it's,  our's,  your's  their' s. 

n. — When  nouns  of  the  possessive  case  are  connected  by 
conjunctions,  or  put  in  apposition,  the  sign  of  possession  must 
always  be  annexed  to  such,  and  such  only,  as  immediately 
precede  the  governing  noun,  expressed  or  understood ;  as, 
"John  and  Eliza's  teacher  is  a  man  of  more  learning  than 
James's  or  Andrew's." — "  For  David  my  servant's  sake." — Bible. 
"Lost  in  love's  and  friendship's  smile." — Scott. 

IH. — The  relation  of  property  may  also  be  expressed  by 
the  preposition  of  and  the  objective  :  as,  "The  will  of  man;  " 
for,  "  man's  will."  Of  these  forms,  we  should  adopt  that  which 


198  SYNTAX. 

will  render  the  sentence  the  most  perspicuous  and  agreeable, 
and,  by  the  use  of  both,  avoid  an  unpleasant  repetition  of 
either. 

IV. — A  noun  governing  the  possessive  plural,  should  not  be 
made  plural,  unless  the  sense  requires  it  Thus  say,  "We 
have  changed  our  mi?id,"  if  only  one  purpose  or  opinion  is 
meant. 

OBS. — A  noun  taken  figuratively  may  be  singular,  when  the  literal 
meaning  would  require  the  plural:  such  expressions  as,  "  their  face," — 
"  their  neck," — "  their  hand," — "  their  liead," — "  their  heart," — "  our 
mouth," — "  our  life,"— are  frequent  in  the  Scriptures,  and  are  not  im- 
proper 

V. — The  possessive  case  should  not  be  prefixed  to  a  parti- 
ciple, or  to  a  participial  phrase,  where  unnecessary,  or  when 
the  construction  thus  formed  would  be  awkward  or  inelegant. 
The  following  phrase  is  therefore  faulty:  "Adopted  by  the 
Goths  in  their  pronouncing  the  Greek."  Omit  their. 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — Thy  ancestors  virtue  is  not  thine. 

FORMOTJS.— Not  proper,  because  the  noun  ancestors,  which  is  intended  for  the  pos- 
sessive plural,  has  not  the  appropriate  form  of  that  case.  But,  according  to  Note  I.,  under 
Rule  XVIII.,  "  In  the  use  of  the  possessive  case,  its  appropriate  form  should  be  observed." 
An  apostrophe  is  required  after  ancestors ;  thus,  Thy  ancestors'  virtue  is  not  thine. 

L 

Mans  chief  good  is  an  upright  mind. 

I  will  not  destroy  the  city  for  ten  sake. 

Moses  rod  was  turned  into  a  serpent. 

They  are  wolves  in  sheeps  clothing. 

The  tree  is  known  by  it's  fruit. 

The  privilege  is  not  their's,  any  more  than  it  is  your's. 
Yet  he  was  gentle  as  soft  summer  airs, 
Had  grace  for  others  sins,  but  none  for  theirs'. 

n. 

There  is  but  little  difference  between  the  Earth  and  Venus's 
diameter. 


GOYERKMENT.  190 

This  hat  is  John  or  James's. 

The  store  is  opposite  to  Morris's  and  Company's. 

This  palace  had  been  the  grand  Sultan's  Mahomet's. 

This  was  the  Apostle's  Paul's  advice. 

Were  Cain's  occupation  and  Abel  the  same  ? 

Were  Cain  and  Abel's  occupation  the  same  ? 

Were  Cain's  and  Abel's  occupations  the  same  ? 

Were  Cain  and  Abel's  parents  the  same? 

Were  Cain's  parents  and  Abel  the  same  ? 

Was  Cain's  and  Abel's  father  there  ? 

Were  Cain's  and  Abel's  parents  there  ? 

Thy.  Maker's  will  has  placed  thee  here, 

A  Maker's  wise  and  good. 

m. 

The  world's  government  is  not  left  to  chance. 
He  was  Louis  the  Sixteenth's  son's  heir. 
The  throne  we  honor  is  the  choice  of  the  people. 
We  met  at  my  brother's  partner's  house. 
An  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the  court  of  Alexander. 
Here  is  a  copy  of  the  Constitution  of  the  Society  of  Teachers 
of  the  City  of  New  York. 

IV. 

Their  healths  perhaps  may  be  pretty  well  secured. 
We  have  all  the  talents  committed  to  our  charges. 
For  your  sakes  forgave  I  it,  in  the  sight  of  Christ. 
We  are,  for  our  parts,  well  satisfied. 
The  pious  cheerfully  submit  to  their  lots. 
Fools  think  it  not  worth  their  whiles  to  be  wise. 

V. 

I  rewarded  the  boy  for  his  studying  so  diligently. 
Have  you  a  rule  for  your  thus  parsing  the  participle  ? 
He  errs  in  his  giving  the  word  a  double  construction. 
By  our  offending  others,  we  expose  ourselves. 
They  deserve  our  thanks  for  their  quickly  relieving  us. 


200  SYNTAX. 

Promiscuous. 

Brown  and  Jones's  house  will  be  occupied  by  the  respective 

owners. 

Edward  the  Second's  death  was  a  shocking  one. 
I  ha^e  seen  neither  William  nor  Charles's  book. 
Socrates'  sayings  are  recorded  in  Plato  and  Xenophon's 

works. 

Horace'  poems  show  great  genius. 
Adam  was  Cain's  and  Abel's  father. 
Men  and  women's  shoes  are  made  differently. 
Jones's  and  Taylor's  store  was  destroyed  by  fire. 
All  good  people  must  take  this  lesson  to  their  hearts. 
Queen  Elizabeth  mourned  on  account  of  Essex'  sad  fate. 

Parsing. 

Parse  all  the  possessive*  in  the  above  sentences  w?ten  corrected. 

Rule  XIX — Object  of  the  Verb. 

Active-transitive  verbs,  and  their  imperfect  and  preper- 
fect  participles,  govern  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  I  found 
fter  assisting  him" — " Having  finished  the  work,  I  submit 

Observations. 

1.  The  objective  case  generally  follows  the  governing  word:    but 
when  it  is  emphatic,  it  often  precedes  the  nominative  ;  as,  "  Me  he  re- 
stored to  mine  office,  and  him  he  hanged." — Gen.  xli.,  13.     "  Home  he 
had  not." — Thomson.     "  This poin t  they  have  gained."    In  poetry  it  is 
-•metimes  placed  between  the  nominative  and  the  verb  ;  as,  "  His  dar- 
ing foe  securely  him  defied." — Milton.     "The  broom  its  yellow  leaf 
hath  shed." 

2.  An  active-transitive  verb  is  often  followed  by  the  direct  object  of 
the  action,  and  the  indirect  object,  or  that  in  respect  to  which  the  action 
is  performed.     The  latter  is  usually  preceded  by  a  preposition,  which  is 
sometimes   understood;    as,   "I   paid  [to]  him  the  money." — "They 
offered  [to]  me  a  seat." — "  He  asked  [of]  them  the  question." 

3.  In  expressing  such  sentences  passively,  the  object  of  the  preposi- 
tion is  sometimes  assumed  for  the  nominative  ;  as,  "  lie  was  paid  the 


money,"  instead  of,  "  T7i6  money  was  paid  [to]  him."  The  direct  object 
should,  however,  generally  be  made  the  subject  of  the  passive  verb ; 
but  in  some  cases,  usage  seems  to  sanction  the  reverse  ;  as,  "  The  boy 
was  taught  grammar";  instead  of,  "Grammar  was  taught  [to]  the 
toy." — "He  was  denied  the  privilege."  In  this  construction,  the  noun 
following  the  passive  still  continues  to  be  an  object  of  the  action  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb,  and  is,  accordingly,  in  the  objective  case. 

4.  An  active-transitive  verb  is  sometimes  followed  by  an  object  and 
an  attribute  agreeing  with  it ;  as,  "  Thy  saints  proclaim  thee  king,"  i.e., 
that  thou  art  king. — "The  Author  of  my  being  formed  me  man." — 
Murray.     "And  God  called  the  firmament  Heaven. " — Bible.     And,  in 
such  a  construction,  the  direct  object  is  sometimes  placed  before  the 
verb  ;  as,  "  And  Simon  he  surnamed  Peter." — Mark  Hi. 

5.  Some  verbs,   usually  intransitive,   govern   only  a   noun    of   kin- 
dred meaning ;  as,   "He  lived  a  virtuous  life." — "Joseph  dreamed  a 
dream." 

Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

I. — Those  verbs  and  participles  which  require  an  object, 
should  not  be  used  intransitively  ;  as,  "  She  affects  [kindness] 
in  order  to  ingratiate  [herself]  with  you." — "I will  not  allow 
of  it."  Omit  of. 

n. — Those  verbs  and  participles  which  do  not  admit  an 
object,  should  not  be  used  transitively ;  as,  "  The  planter* 
grow  cotton."  Say  raise,  or  cultivate. 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — She  I  shall  more  readily  forgive. 

FoRMtrLE.  — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  she  is  in  the  nominative  case,  and  is  used 
as  the  object  of  the  active-transitive  verb  shall  forgive.  But  according  to  Rule  XIX.V 
"Active-transitive  verbs,  and  their  imperfect  and  preperfect  participles,  govern  the  ob- 
jective case."  Therefore,  she  should  be  her ;  thus,  Her  I  shall  more  readily  forgive. 

Thou  only  have  I  chosen. 

Who  shall  we  send  on  this  errand  ? 

My  father  allowed  my  brother  and  I  to  accompany  him. 

He  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply. 

Who  should  I  meet  but  my  old  friend ! 

He  accosts  whoever  he  meets. 

Whosoever  the  court  favors  is  safe. 

They  that  honor  me  I  will  honor. 


202  SYNTAX. 

Who  do  you  think  I  saw  the  other  day  ? 
Let  you  and  I  avoid  such  company. 

L 

The  ambitious  are  always  seeking  to  aggrandize. 
I  mast  premise  with  three  circumstances. 
This  society  does  not  allow  of  personal  reflections. 
False  accusation  cannot  diminish  from  real  merit. 
His  servants  ye  are  to  whom  ye  obey. 

n. 

Good  keeping  thrives  the  herd. 
We  endeavored  to  agree  the  parties. 
Being  weary,  he  sat  him  down. 
Go,  flee  thee  away  into  the  land  of  Judah. 
The  popular  lords  did  not  fail  to  enlarge  themselves  on  the 
subject. 

Parsing. 

Parse  all  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences. 

His  father  presented  him  a  gold  watch.  The  teacher  refused  him 
permission.  The  savages  at  last  gave  them  their  liberty.  They  asked 
him  a  curious  question.  The  governor  offered  him  a  large  reward. 
They  paid  him  the  money.  His  father  denied  him  the  privilege.  They 
showed  him  some  beautiful  pictures. 

Change  the  active-transitive  verb  in  each  of  these  sentences  to  a  passive 
verb,  using  the  direct  or  indirect  object  for  the  nominative,  as  may  be 
preferable. 

Rule  XX. — Object  of  the  Preposition. 

Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  Beauty 
dwells  in  them,  and  they  in  her" 

Observations. 

1.  Prepositions  are  sometimes  dliptically  construed  with  adjectives; 
as,  in  vain,  in  secret,  at  first,  on  high  ;  i.e. ,  in  a  vain  manner,  in  secret 
places,  at  the  first  time,  on  high  places.     Such  phrases  imply  time,  place, 
degree,  or  manner,   and  are  equivalent  to   adverbs.     In  parsing,  the 
learner  may  supply  the  ellipsis. 

2.  In  a  few  instances  prepositions  precede  adverbs  ;  as,  at  once,  from 
above,  for  ever.     These  should  be  united,  and  parsed  as  adverbs,  or  else 
the  adverb  must  be  parsed  as  a  noun. 


GOVERNMENT. 

5  When  nouns  of  time  or  measure  are  connected  with  verbs  or  adjec- 
tives, the  prepositions  which  govern  them,  are  generally  suppressed  ;  as, 
"  We  rode  sixty  miles  that  day  ;  "  that  is,  "  through  sixty  miles  on  that 
day."— "  The  wall  is  ten  feet  high  ;  "  that  is,  "  high  to  ten  feet."  The 
ellipsis  must  be  supplied,  or  the  expression  considered  as  adverbial. 

4.  After  the  adjectives  like,  near,  and  nigh,  the  preposition  to  or  unto 
is  often  understood  ;  as,  "  It  is  Like  [to  or  unto'}  silver." — Atten.    "  How 
like  the  former!" — Dry  den.      "Near    yonder    copse." — Goldsmith. 
"  Nigh  this  recess." — Garth.     As  similarity  and  proximity  are  relations, 
and  not  qualities,  it  might,  seem  proper  to  call  like,  near,  and  nigh, 
prepositions ;  and  some  grammarians  have  so  classed  the  last  two.     We 
have  not  placed  them  with  the  prepositions  for  four  reasons:  (1.)  Be- 
cause they  are  sometimes  compared;  (2.)  Because  they  sometimes  have 
adverbs  evidently  relating  to  them  ;  (3.)  Because  the  preposition  to  or  unto 
is  sometimes  expressed  after  them ;  and,  (4. )  Because  the  words  which 
usually  stand  for  them  in  the  learned  languages,  are  clearly  adjectives. 
Like,  when  it  expresses  similarity  of  manner,  and  near  and  nigh,  when 
they  express  proximity  of  degree,  are  adverbs. 

5.  The  adjective  worth,  like  the  words  near,  nigh,  etc.,  is  followed  by 
a  noun  or  a  participle  expressing  limitation,  without  a  governing  prepo- 
sition ;  as,  "To  reign  is  worth  ambition." — Milton.     "This  is  life  in- 
deed,  life   worth  preserving." — Addison.      The  relation  in  this  case, 
according  to  idiom,  never  being  indicated  by  a  preposition,  cannot  be 
expressed  except  by  a  periphrase  ;  but,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  it 
is  the  relation  that  governs,  whether  expressed  or  not. 

6.  In  the  phrases,  "woe  worth  the  day,"  "  woe  worth  the  man,"  and 
the  like,  the  word  worth  is  the  imperative  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb 
weordhan,  to  be,  to  become,  to  being  understood  ;  hence  the  meaning 
is,  Woe  be  to  the  day,  etc. 

7.  After  verbs  of  giving,  procuring,  and  some  others,  there  is  usually 
an  ellipsis  of  to  or  for  before  the  objective  of  the  person;  as,  "Give 
[to\  him  water  to  drink." — "Buy  [for]  me  a  knife."    So  also  in  the 
exclamation,  "  Woe  ismef  "  meaning,  "  Woe  is  to  me  !  " 

8.  After  the  verb  cost,  there  is  also  an  ellipsis  of  the  preposition  ;  as, 
"  A  diamond  gone,  cost  me  two  thousand  ducajts."— -Shakspeare. 


False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — It  rests  with  thou  and  me  to  decide- 

FORMXJLE.— Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  thou  is  in  tlw»  nominative  ca*e,  and  is 
governed  by  the  preposition  with.  But,  according  to  B.*>J«  XX. ,  "  Prepositions  govern 
the  objective  case."  Therefore,  thou  should  be  the*  '  ^lus,  It  rests  with  thee  and  me  to 
decide. 


204  SYNTAX. 

Let  that  remain  a  secret  between  yon  and  I. 
I  lent  the  book  to  some  one,  I  know  not  who. 
Who  did  he  inquire  for?     Thou. 
From  he  that  is  needy,  turn  not  away. 
We  are  all  accountable,  each  for  his  own  act's. 
Does  that  boy  know  who  he  is  speaking  to  ? 
I  bestow  my  favors  on  whosoever  I  will. 
Except  him  and  I,  no  one  saw  it. 

Parsing. 

Parse  the  'prepositions  and  att  words  printed  in  Italics  in  the  following 
sentences. 

My  sister  is  five  years  of  age.  The  house  is  twenty  feet  high.  Envy 
is  like  the  scorpion  that  stings  itself  to  death.  I  gave  my  brother  a  bag 
of  marbles.  The  house  is  worth  ten  thousand  dollars.  What  he  offered 
me  was  not  worth  having.  In  vain  did  they  beseech  him  for  mercy. 
The  book  cost  me  five  dollars.  Will  you  buy  me  a  knife  at  the  store  ? 
In  words,  like  weeds,  I'll  wrap  me  o'er.  Be  near  me  when  I  fade  away. 


Rule  XXI.— Infinitives. 

The  preposition  TO  commonly  governs  the  infinitive 
mood,  and  connects  it  to  a  finite  verb,  or  some  other  part  of 
speech  ;  as,  "  I  desire  to  learn" — "  I  went  to  see  my 
friend." — "  He  is  anxious  to  succeed" 

Observations. 

1.  The  word  to,  generally  used  with  the  infinitive  mood,  serves  to  in- 
dicate the  mood  (in  the  absence  of  a  special  inflection),  and,  usually,  to 
express  the  relation  between  the  verb  and  the  word  which  it  limits  or 
modifies.     In  such  cases,  the  infinitive  mood  with  to  is  equivalent  to  a 
prepositional  phrase.      In  other  constructions,  however,  the  word  to 
loses  its  prepositional  office  ;  as  when  the  infinitive  is  used  as  the  subject 
or  the  object  of  a  verb.     In  the  latter  case,  being  the  object  of  the  verb, 
it  cannot  be  the  object  of  the  preposition. 

2.  When  the  infinitive  is  the  object  of  the  preposition,  it  may  be 
joined  to  various  parts  of  speech  :  — 

1.  To  a  noun  ;  as,  "  He  had  leave  to  go." 

2.  To  an  adjective  ;  as,  "We  were  anxious  to  see  you.'* 


GOVERNMENT.  205 

8.  To  an  intransitive  verb ;  as,  "  He's  gone  to  do  it." — "  I  rejoice  to 
hear  it." 

4.  To  an  adverb  ;  as,  "  She  is  old  enough  to  go  to  school." 

5.  To  a  pronoun  ;  as,  "  It  is  ours  to  transmit." 

8.  The  other  usages  of  the  infinitive  mood  are  the  following : — 

1.  As  the  subject  of  a  verb ;  as,  "  To  steal  is  sinful." 

2.  As  the  object  of  a  verb  ;  as,  "  He  loves  to  ride." 

3.  As  the  attribute  ;  as,  "  To  enjoy  is  to  obey" — "  He  seemed  to  b« 

guilty." — "His  conduct  is  to  be  admired." — "They  were  to 
blame." 

4.  As  a  mere  term  of  comparison ;  as,  "  He  was  so  much  affected 

as  to  weep." — "  He  knows  better  than  to  trust  you." 

5.  As  the   object  of  another  preposition;    as,    "I   was   about    to 

write. "-r"  He  did  nothing  but  [to]  idle  away  his  time." 

6.  As  independent;    as,    "O   to  forget  her !  "— "  To  confess  the 

truth,  I  was  to  blame." — "  To  be  or  not  to  be ;— that  is  the 
question." 

7.  As  the  predicate  in  a  dependent  clause  ;  as,  "I  suppose  it  to  be 

necessary." 

In  this  last  case,  the  word  to  has,  of  course,  no  prepositional  force, 
becoming  merely  the  sign  of  the  infinitive. 

4.  An  adverb,  or  other  modifying  expression,  should  not  be  inserted 
between  the  verb  and  the  word  to  which  belongs  to  it ;  as,  "It  is  wrong 
to  stubbornly  oppose  the  truth  "  ;  say,  "  stubbornly  to  oppose,"  etc. 

5.  The  infinitive  is  often  used  in  the  perfect  tense  for  the  present ; 
as,  "  He  intended  to  have  done  it,"  instead  of,  "to  do  it." 

6.  The  use  of  and  for  to,  though  very  common,  is  improper  and  in- 
elegant ;  as,  "  Will  you  try  and  do  it  for  me  ?  "    It  should  be,  "  to  do 
it." 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — Ought  these  things  be  tolerated  ? 

FORMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  infinitive  be  tolerated,  is  not  preceded  by  the 
preposition  to.  But,  according  to  Rule  XXI.,  "  The  preposition  to  commonly  governs 
the  infinitive  mood,  and  connects  it  to  a  finite  verb  or  some  other  part  of  speech."  There- 
fore, to  should  be  inserted ;  thus,  Ought  these  things  to  be  tolerated? 

Please  excuse  my  son's  absence. 

Cause  every  man  go  out  from  me. 

I  would  not  have  let  him  gone.     (Obs.  5.) 

Try  a»4  let  me  have  the  money,  if  you  can.     (06s.  6.) 

To  foolishly  squander  one's  time  is  a  sin.     (Obs,  4.) 


M 

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MISCELLANEOUS   RULES.  207 

IV. -MISCELLANEOUS    RULES. 

Rule  XXII Infinitives. 

The  active  verbs,  bid,  dare,  fed,  hear,  let,  make,  need, 

gee,  and  their  participles,  usually  take  the  infinitive  after 
them,  without  the  preposition  TO  ;  as,  "  If  he  bade  tbee 
depart,  how  darest  thou  &ay  f  " 

Observations. 

1.  The  preposition  is  almost  always  employed  after  the  passive  farm. 
of  these  verbs,  and  in  some  instances  after  the  active ;  as,  "  He  was 
heard  to  say."— "  I  cannot  see  to  do  it"— "  What  would  dare  to  molest 
him  who  might  call,  on  every  side,  to  thousands  enriched  bj  his 
bounty  *  "—Dr.  Johnxm. 

2.  The  auxiliary  be  of  the  passive  infinitive  is  also  suppressed,  after 
fed,  hear,  make,  and  **/  as,  "I  heard  the  letter  mid,"— not,  "*« 


3.  A  few  other  verbs,  besides  the  eight  which  are  mentioned  in  the 
foregoing  rule,  tomatimet  have  the  infinitive  after  then  without  to; 
suchas,  WbM,J&id,  Am,  A<%>,  MT*,  riwras,  and  other  equivalents  of 
tee.  Example:  " Certain'y  it  is  heaven  upon  earth,  to  Am  a  man^ 
mind  more  in  charity,  r  ft  in  Providence,  and  turn  upon  the  poles  of 
truth."- 


Faise  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — They  need  not  to  call  upon  her. 

the  prepaanon  ft*  • 


•Bfc  can  upon  her. 

I  felt  a  chilling  sensation  to  creep  over  me. 

I  have  heard  him  to  mention  the  subject. 

Bid  the  boys  to  come  in  immediately. 

I  dare  to  say  he  has  not  got  home  yet 

Let  no  rash  promise  to  be  made. 

We  sometimes  see  bad  men  to  be  honored. 

A  good  reader  win  make  himself  to  be  distinctly 

Do  you  not  observe  it  to  move  ? 


208  SYNTAX. 

Can  I  not  make  this  matter  be  understood? 
Bid  the  officers  to  do  their  duty. 
They  have  been  bidden  do  it  already. 

Parsing. 

Parse  aU  the  infinitives  in  the  above  sentences  when  corrected. 

EXAMPLE.— "Let  love  be  without  dissimulation." 

Be  is  an  irregular,  neuter  verb,  from  be,  was,  being,  been.  It  is  in 
the  infinitive  mood  and  present  tense,  being  the  predicate  of  the  clause 
dependent  on  let,  according  to  Obs.  3,  under  Rule  XXI.  The  word  to  is 
omitted  after  let,  according  to  the  rule, — The  active  verbs  bid,  dare,  etc. 

Rule  XXIII Subjunctive  Mood. 

A  future  contingency  is  best  expressed  by  a  verb  in 
the  subjunctive  present;  and  a  mere  supposition  with 
indefinite  time,  by  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  imperfect : 
but  a  conditional  circumstance  assumed  as  a  fact,  requires 
the  indicative  mood  ;  as,  "  If  thou  forsake  him,  he  will 
cast  thee  off  forever." — "  If  it  were  not  so,  I  would  have 
told  you." — "  If  thou  went7  nothing  would  be  gained." — 
"  Though  he  is  poor,  he  is  contented." 

OBS. — The  pupil  must  carefully  study  the  three  points  involved  in 
this  rule,  and  the  cases  to  which  they  apply.  The  subjunctive  mood  is 
required  only  when  the  event  or  fact  is  both  future  and  contingent,  that 
is,  dependent  upon  the  occurrence  of  some  other  future  event.  The 
time  is  indefinite,  being,  only  relatively,  present  or  past.  The  difference 
between  the  conditional  statement  of  a  fact  and  a  future  contingency 
will  be  obvious  from  these  two  sentences  : — 

1.  If  he  be  sick,  I  will  visit  him.  (Subjunctive.') 

2.  Though  he  is  sick,  he  does  not  repine.  (Indicative.) 

In  (1)  the  act  of  visiting  is  future  and  contingent  upon  his  sickness ; 
in  (2)  the  sickness  is  a  fact  (he  is  sick),  and  he  does  not  repine.  The 
(sentence,  If  he  were  sick,  I  would  visit  him,  contains  a  supposition  with 
indefinite  time  (if  he  were  sick  at  any  time).  It  is  relatively  past,  as 
these  sentences  will  show : — 

1.  If  he  be  sick  (and  lie  may  be),  I  will  visit  him. 

2.  If  he  were  sick  (but  he  is  not),  I  would  visit  him. 

3.  If  he  had  been  sick  (but  he  was  not),  I  would  have  visited  him. 


MISCELLANEOUS   RULES.  209 

False  Syntax. 

First  Clause  of  the  Rule. 

EXAMPLE. — He  will  not  be  pardoned,  unless  he  repents. 

FORMTJLE. — Not  proper,  because  the  verb  repents,  which  is  used  to  express  a  future 
contingency,  is  in  the  indicative  mood.  But,  according  to  the  first  clause  of  Rule  XXIII., 
"  A  future  contingency  is  best  expressed  by  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  present.  There- 
fore, repents  should  be  repent ;  thus,  He  will  not  be  pardone^Xunless  he  repent. 

He  will  maintain  his  cause,  though  he  loses  his  estate. 

They  will  fine  thee,  unless  thou  offerest  an  excuse. 

I  shall  walk  out  in  the  afternoon,  unless  it  rains. 

Let  him  take  heed  lest  he  falls. 

On  condition  that  he  comes,  I  consent  to  stay. 

If  he  is  but  discreet,  he  will  succeed. 

Take  heed  that  thou  speakest  not  to  Jacob. 

If  thou  castest  me  off,  I  shall  be  miserable. 

Send  them  to  me,  if  thou  pleasest. 

Watch  the  door  of  thy  lips,  lest  thou  utterest  folly. 

Second  Clause. 

EXAMPLE. — And  so  would  I,  if  I  was  he. 

FOBMULE.— Not  proper,  because  the  verb  was,  which  is  used  to  express  a  mere  sup- 
position, with  indefinite  time,  is  in  the  indicative  mood.  But,  according  to  the  second 
clause  of  Rule  XXIII.,  "  A  mere  supposition,  with  indefinite  time,  is  best  expressed  by  a 
verb  in  the  subjunctive  imperfect."  Therefore  was  should  be  were ;  thus,  And  so  would 
I,  if  I  were  he. 

If  I  was  to  write,  he  would  not  regard  it. 

If  thou  feltest  as  I  do,  we  should  soon  decide. 

Though  thou  sheddest  thy  blood  in  the  cause,  it  would  but 

prove  thee  sincerely  a  fool. 

If  thou  lovedst  him,  there  would  be  more  evidence  of  it. 
I  believed,  whatever  was  the  issue,  all  would  be  well. 
If  love  was  never  feigned,  it  would  appear  to  be  scarce. 
There  fell  from  his  eyes  as  it  had  been  scales. 
If  he  was  an  imposter,  he  must  have  been  detected. 
Was  death  denied,  all  men  would  wish  to  die. 
O  that  there  was  yet  a  day  to  redress  thy  wrongs ! 
Though  thou  was  huge  as  Atlas,  thv  efforts  would  be  vain, 


210  SYNTAX. 

Last  Clause. 

EXAMPLE. — If  he  know  the  way,  he  does  not  need  a  guide. 

FORMULE. — Not  proper,  because  the  verb  know,  which  is  used  to  express  a  conditional 
circumstance  assumed  as  a  fact,  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood.  But,  according  to  the  last 
clause  of  Rule  XXIII.,  "A  conditional  circumstance  assumed  as  a  fact,  requires  the  in- 
dicative mood."  Therefore,  know  should  be  knows ;  thus,  If  he  knows  the  way,  he  does 
not  need  a  guide. 

Though  he  seem  to  be  artless,  he  has  deceived  us. 
If  he  be  defeated,  he  has  not  given  up  all  hope. 
Though  this  event  be  strange,  it  certainly  did  happen. 
If  thou  love  tranquillity  of  mind,  why  engage  in  disputes  ? 
If  seasons  of  idleness  be  dangerous,  what  must  a  continued 

habit  of  it  prove. 
Though  he  were  a  son,  yet  learned  he  obedience  by  the  things 

which  he  suffered. 
I  knew  thou  wert  not  slow  to  hear. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Analyze  and  parse  each  of  the  foregoing  sentences,  after  correction, 
according  to  preceding  examples,  and  apply  Rule  XXIII. 


Rule  XXIV Independent  Case. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  in  the  nominative,  when  its 
case  depends  on  no  other  word ;  as,  "  He  failing,  who 
shall  meet  success  ? "- — "  Your  fathers,  where  are  they  ?  " 

Exception. 

An  independent  pronoun  is  sometimes  used  in  the  objective  case  ;  as, 
"  Me  miserable  !  which  way  shall  I  fly  ?  "—Milton.  "  Ah  me !  "  [See 
Obs.  2,  Rule  XXVI.] 

Observations. 

1.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  independent  under  the  following  four 
circumstances  : — 

1.  When,  with  a  participle,  it  is  used  to  express  a  cause  or  some 
other  related  event;  as,  "  Thou  looking  on,  I  shall  not  fail," 
This  is  usually  called  the  case  absolute. 


MISCELLANEOUS   RULES.  211 

2.  When  it  is  vised  to  indicate  simply  the  person  addressed  ;  as,  "O 

thou  that  dwellest  in  the  heavens. " 

3.  When,  hy  pleonasm,  it  is  introduced  abruptly  for  the  sake  of 

emphasis;  as,  "He  that  is  in  the  city,  famine  and  pestilence 
shall  devour  him." 

4.  When,   by  mere  exclamation,   it  is  used  without   address,  and 

without  other  words  expressed  or  implied  to  give  it  construc- 
tion; as,  "O,  what /<%/" 

2.  The  nominative  put  absolute  with  a  participle,  is  equivalent  to  a 
dependent  clause  commencing  with  when,  while,  if,  since,  or  because ; 
as,  "  I  being  a  child," — equal  to,  "  When  [since  or  because']  I  was  a  child. " 

3.  The  participle  being  is  often  understood  after  nouns  or  pronouns 
put  absolute  ;  as, 

"  Alike  in  ignorance,  his  reason  [ ]  such, 

Whether  he  thinks  too  little  or  too  much." — Pope. 

4.  The  case  of  nouns  used  in  exclamations,  or  in  mottoes  and  abbre- 
viated sayings,  often  depends,   or  may  be   conceived  to  depend,  on 
something  understood ;  and,  when  their  construction  can  be  satisfac- 
torily explained  on  the  principle  of  ellipsis,  they  are  not  'put  absolute. 
The  following    examples    may  perhaps  be  resolved  in   this  manner, 
though  the  expressions  will  lose  much  of  their  vivacity:   "  h.  horse! 
a  liorse  !  my  kingdom  for  a  horse  !  " 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — Him  having  ended  his  discourse,  the  assembly 
dispersed. 

FORMITLE.— Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  him,  whose  case  depends  on  no  other 
word,  is  in  the  objective  case.  But,  according  to  Rule  XXIV.,  "  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is 
put  absolute  in  the  nominative,  when  its  case  depends  on  no  other  word."  Therefore, 
him  should  be  he ;  thus,  He  having  ended  his  discourse,  the  assembly  dispersed. 

Me  being  young,  they  deceived  me. 

Them  refusing  to  comply,  I  withdrew. 

Thee  being  present,  he  would  not  tell  what  he  knew. 

The  child  is  lost ;  and  me,  whither  shall  I  go  ! 

Oh  happy  us  !  surrounded  thus  with  blessings ! 

:'Thee  too!  Brutus,  my  son  ! "  cried  Csesar,  overcome. 

But  him,  the  chieftain  of  them  all, 

His  sword  hangs  rusting  on  the  wall. 

Her  quick  relapsing  to  her  former  state, 

With  boding  fears  approach  the  serving  train. 


212  SYNTAX. 

There  all  thy  gifts  and  graces  we  display, 
Thee,  only  thee,  directing  all  our  way. 

Parsing. 

Parse  the  independent  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  foregoing  sentences, 
when  corrected.  ---^ 


Rule  XXV.— Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions   connect   either  words   or   sentences ;  as, 
"  John  and  James  are  studious,  but  William  is  idle." 

Exceptions. 

1.  The  conjunction  that  sometimes  serves  merely  to  introduce  a  sen- 
tence which  is  made  the  subject  of  a  verb ;  as,  "  That  mind  is  not 
matter,  is  certain."     Its  connective  force  consists  in  showing  that  the 
clause  is  dependent. 

2.  When  two  corresponding  conjunctions  occur  in  their  usual  order, 
the  former  should  be  considered  as  referring  to  the  latter,  which  is  more 
properly  the  connecting  word ;  as,  "  Neither  sun  nor  stars  in  many  days 
appeared. " 

3.  Either,  corresponding  to  or,  and  neither,  corresponding  to  nor  or 
not,  are  sometimes  transposed,  so  as  to  repeat  the  disjunction  or  nega- 
tion at  the  end  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  Where  then  was  their  capacity  of 
standing,  or  his  either?" — Barclay.      "It  is  not  dangerous  neither." — 
BoUngbroke.     "  He  is  very  tall,  but  not  too  tall  neither."— Spectator. 

Observations. 

1.  Conjunctions  are  sometimes  unnecessarily  accumulated  ;  as,  "  But 
and  if  that  evil  servant  say  in  his  heart." — Matthew  xxiv.     Omit  and. 

2.  In  the  combination  but  that,  the  former  seems  to  have  the  force  of 
a  preposition,  being  equivalent  to  except;  as,  "What  rests,  but  that 
the  mortal  sentence  pass  ?  " — Milton.     In  this  sentence,  but  seems  to  be 
a  preposition,  having  the  following  clause  for  its  object,  the  prepositional 
structure  thus  formed  limiting  what. 

3.  The  conjunction  as  is  sometimes  used  to  connect  the  attribute  and 
the  subject ;  as,  "  He  was  employed  as  an  usher. "  It  may  also  connect  the 
indirect  attribute  with  an  object  to  which  it  refers ;  as,  "He  offered  him- 
self as  a  journeyman."     [In  some  cases  of  this  kind,  perhaps  in  the 
above  sentences,  as  seems  to  have  the  force  of  a  preposition,  as  it  de- 
potes  a  relation  which  may  usually  be  expressed  by  in  the  capacity  c$9 


f  ) 

MISCELLANEOUS   RULES.  213 

or  the  like;  as,  "His  judgment  as  a  critic  was  very  reliable."  Here 
critic  appears  to  be  the  object  of  the  relation  expressed  by  as,  which 
must,  therefore,  be  a  preposition.  There,  certainly,  is  no  connection  of 
appositional  terms,  nor  of  any  subject  and  attribute. — EDITOR.] 

4.  After  than  or  as  expressing  a  comparison,  there  is  usually  an 
ellipsis  of  some  word  or  words.  The  construction  of  the  words  employed 
may  be  known  by  supplying  the  ellipsis  ;  as,  "  She  is  younger  than  I  " 
[am]. — "He  does  nothing  who  endeavors  to  do  more  than  [what]  is  al- 
lowed to  humanity. " — Johnson.  ' '  My  punishment  is  greater  than  [what] 
I  can  bear."— Bible. 

Notes,  or  Subordinate  Rules. 

I. — When  two  terms  connected  refer  jointly  to  a  third,  they 
must  be  adapted  to  it  and  to  each  other,  both  in  sense  and 
in  form.  Thus,  instead  of,  "It  always  has,  and  always  will 
be  laudable,"  say,  "  It  always  has  been,  and  it  always  will  be 
laudable." 

n. — The  disjunctive  conjunction  lest  or  but,  should  not  be 
employed  where  the  copulative  that  would  be  more  proper  : 
as,  "I  feared  that  I  should  be  deserted  ; "  not,  "  lest  I  should 
be  deserted." 

HI. — After  else,  other,  rather,  and  all  comparatives,  the  latter 
term  of  comparison  should  be  introduced  by  the  conjunction 
than  ;  as,  "  Can  there  be  any  other  than  this  ?  " — "  Is  not  the 
life  more  than  meat  ?  " 

IV. — The  words  in  each  of  the  following  pairs,  are  the 
proper  correspondents  to  each  other  ;  and  care  should  be  taken 
to  give  them  their  right  place  in  the  sentence. 

1.  Though— yet;  as,  "Though  he  were  dead,  yet  shall  he  live."- 
John  xi. 

2.  Whether—or  ;  as,  "  Whether  there  be  few  or  many." 

3.  Either — or;  as,  "He  was  either  ashamed  or  afraid." 

4.  Neither— nor  ;   as,  "John  the  Baptist  came  neither  eating  bread 
nor  drinking  wine." — Luke  vii. 

5.  Both— and;  as,  "  I  am  debtor  both  to  the  Greeks  and  to  the  Bar- 
barians."— Rom.  i. 

6.  Such — as  ;  as,  "  An  assembly  such  as  earth  saw  never." 

7.  Such — that ;  with  a  finite  verb  following,  to  express  a  consequence ; 
as,  "My  health  is  such  that  I  cannot  go." 


214  SYNTAX. 

8.  As — as  ;  with  an  adjective  or  an  adverb,  to  express  equality ;  as, 
"  The  peasant  is  as  gay  a*  he." 

9.  As— so ;  with  two  verbs,   to  express  equality  or   proportion  ;  as, 
"  As  two  are  to  four,  so  are  six  to  twelve." 

10.  So— as ;  with  an  adjective  or  an  adverb,  to  limit  the  degree  by 
comparison ;  as,  "  How  can  you  descend  to  a  thing  so  base  as  falsehood  ?  " 

11.  So—as;  with  a  negative  preceding,  to  deny  equality ;  as,  "No 
lamb  was  e'er  so  mild  as  he. " 

12.  So — as ;  with  an  infinitive  following,  to  express  a  consequence  ; 
as,  "  These  difficulties  were  so  great  as  to  discourage  him." 

13.  So — that ;  with  a  finite  verb  following,  to  express  a  consequence ; 
as,  "He  was  so  much  injured,  that  he  could  not  walk." 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — The  first  proposal  was  essentially  different  and 
inferior  to  the  second. 

FOBMTJLE. — Not  proper,  because  the  preposition  to,  is  used  with  joint  reference  to  the 
two  adjectives  different  and  inferior,  which  require  different  prepositions.  But,  accor- 
ding to  Note  I.  under  Rule  XXV.,  '*When  two  terms  connected  refer  jointly  to  a  third, 
they  must  be  adapted  to  it  and  to  each  other,  both  in  sense  and  in  form."  The  sentence 
may  be  corrected  thus  :  The  first  proposal  was  essentially  different  from  the  second,  and 
inferior  to  it. 

I. 

He  has  made  alterations  and  additions  to  the  work. 
He  is  more  bold,  but  not  so  wise,  as  his  companion. 
Sincerity  is  as  valuable,  and  even  more  so,  than  knowledge. 
t  always  have,  and  I  always  shall  be,  of  this  opinion. 
What  is  now  kept  secret,  shall  be  hereafter  displayed  and 

heard  in  the  clearest  light,.  ';- 
We  pervert  the  noble  faculty  of  speech,  when  we  use  it  to  the 

defamisg  or  to  disquiet  our  neighbors. 
Be  more  anxious  to  acquire  knowledge  than  of  showing  it. 
The  court  of  chancery  frequently  mitigates  and  breaks  the 

teeth  of  the  common  law. 

n 

We  were  apprehensive  lest  some  accident  had  happened. 

I  do  not  deny  but  he  has  merit. 

Are  you  afraid  lest  he  will  forget  you? 

These  paths  and  bow'rs,  doubt  not  but  our  joint  hands 

Will  keep  from  wilderness. — Miltm. 


MISCELLANEOUS   RULES. 

HI. 

It  was  no  other  but  his  own  father. 

Have  you  no  other  proof  except  this  ? 

I  expected  something  more  besides  this. 

He  no  sooner  retires  but  his  heart  burns  with  devotion. 

Such  literary  niching  is  nothing  else  but  robbery. 

IV. 

Neither  despise  or  oppose  what  you  do  not  understand. 

He  would  not  either  do  it  himself  nor  let  me  do  it. 

The  majesty  of  good  things  is  such,  as  the  confines  of  them 
are  reverend. 

Whether  he  intends  to  do  so  I  cannot  tell. 

Send  me  sucK  articles  only  that  are  adapted  to  this  market. 

As  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge,  the  book  is  well  written. 

No  errors  are  so  trivial  but  they  deserve  correction. 

It  will  improve  neither  the  mind  nor  delight  the  fancy. 

The  one  is  equally  deserving  as  the  other. 

There  is  no  condition  so  secure  as  cannot  admit  of  change. 

Do  you  think  this  is  so  good  as  that  ? 

The  relations  are  so  obscure  as  they  require  much  thought. 

None  is  so  fierce  that  dare  stir  him  up. 

There  was  no  man  so  sanguine  who  did  not  apprehend  some 
ill  consequence. 

I  must  be  so  candid  to  own  that  I  do  not  understand  it 

The  book  is  not  as  well  printed  as  it  ought  to  be. 
So  still  he  sat  as  those  who  wait 
Till  judgment  speak  the  doom  of  fate. — Scott. 

Rule  XXVI.— Interjections. 

Interjections  have  no  dependent  construction  ;  as,  "  Of 
let  not  thy  heart  despite  me." — Johnson. 

Observations. 

1.  The  interjection  0  is  common  to  many  languages,  and  is  fre- 
quently prefixed  to  nouns  or  pronouns  that  are  independent  by  direct 
address  ;  as,  "  Arise,  0  Lord;  0  God,  lift  up  thine  hand."— Psalms  x. 
"  0  ye  of  little  faith !  "—Matt.  vi. 


216  SYNTAX. 

2.  Interjections  in  English  have  no  government.     When  a  word  not 
in  the  nominative  absolute,  follows  an  interjection,  as  part  of  an  imper- 
fect exclamation,  its  construction  depends  on  something  understood,' 
as,  "Ah  me  !  "—that  is,  "  Ah  !  pity  me."—"  Alas  for  them  !  "—that  is, 
"  Alas  !  I  sigh  for  them."—"  O  for  that  warning  voice  !  "—that  is,  "  O  ! 
how  I  long  for  that  warning  voice  !  " — "  O!  that  they  were  wise  !  " — 
that  is,   "O!  how  I  wish  that  they  were  wise!"    Such  expressions, 
however,  lose  much  of  their  vivacity,  when  the  ellipsis  is  supplied. 

3.  Interjections  may  be  placed  before  or  after  a  simple  sentence,  and 
sometimes  between  its  parts ;  but  they  are  seldom  allowed  to  interrupt 
the  connection  of  words  closely  united  in  sense. 

Promiscuous  Examples  of  False  Syntax. 


LESSON  I. 

It  is  here  expected  that  the  learner  will  ascertain  for  himself  the  proper  form  of  cor- 
recting each  example,  according  to  the  particular  Rule  or  Note  under  which  it  belongs. 

There  is  a  spirit  in  man,  and  the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty  giveth 
them  understanding. 

My  people  doth  not  consider. 

I  have  never  heard  who  they  invited. 

Then  hasten  thy  return  ;  for,  thee  away, 
No  lustre  has  the  sun,  nor  joy  the  day. 

I  am  as  well  as  when  you  was  here. 

That  elderly  man,  he  that  came  in  late,  I  supposed  to  be  the  superin- 
tendent. 

All  the  virtues  of  mankind  are  to  be  counted  upon  a  few  fingers,  but 
his  follies  and  vices  are  innumerable. 

It  must  indeed  be  confessed  that  a  lampoon  or  a  satire  do  not  carry  in 
them  robbery  or  murder. 

There  was  more  persons  than  one  engaged  in  this  affair. 

A  man  who  lacks  ceremony  has  need  for  great  merit. 

A  wise  man  avoids  the  showing  any  excellence  in  trifles. 

The  most  important  and  first  female  quality  is  sweetness  of  temper. 

We  choose  rather  lead  than  follow. 

Ignorance  is  the  mother  of  fear,  as  well  as  admiration. 

He  must  fear  many,  who  many  fear. 

Every  one  partake  of  honor  bestowed  on  the  worthy. 

The  king  nor  the  queen  were  not  at  all  deceived. 

Was  there  no  difference,  there  would  be  no  choice. 
0*1  had  rather  have  been  informed. 

Must  thee  return  this  evening  ? 

Life  and  death  is  in  the  power  of  the  tongue. 


MISCELLANEOUS  EULES.  217 

I  saw  a  person  that  I  took  to  be  she. 

Let  him  be  whom  he 'may,  I  shall  not  stop. 

This  is  certainly  an  useful  invention. 

That  such  a  spirit  as,  thou  dost  not  understand  me. 

"  It  is.no  more  but  justice,"  quoth  the  farmer. 

LESSON  IL 

Great  improvements  has  been  made. 
*It  is  undoubtedly  true  what  I  have  heard. 
The  nation  is  torn  by  feuds  which  threaten  their  ruin. 
The  account  of  these  transactions  were  incorrect. 
Godliness  with  contentment  are  great  gain. 
The  number  of  sufferers  have  not  been  ascertained. 
There  are  one  or  more  of  them  yet  in  confinement. 
They  have  chose  the  wisest  part. 
He  spent  his  whole  life  in  doing  of  good. 
They  know  scarcely  that  temperance  is  a  virtue. 
I  am  afraid  lest  I  have  labored  in  vain. 
Mischief  to  itself  doth  back  recoil. 
This  construction  sounds  rather  harshly. 
What  is  the  cause  of  the  leaves  curling  ? 
Was  it  thee  that  made  the  noise  ? 
Let  thy  flock  clothe  upon  the  naked. 
Wisdom  and  knowledge  is  granted  unto  thee. 
His  conduct  was  surprising  strange. 
This  woman  taught  my  brother  and  I  to  read. 
Let  your  promises  be  such  that  you  can  perform. 
'We  shall  sell  them  in  the  state  they  now  are. 
We  may  add  this  observation,  however. 
This  came  in  fashion  when  I  was  young. 
I  did  not  use  the  leaves,  but  root  of  the  plant. 
We  have  used  every  mean  in  our  power  continually. 
Pass  ye  away,  thou  inhabitant  of  Saphir.— Mica.h. 
Give  every  syllable  and  every  letter  their  proper  sound. 

LESSON  III. 

To  know  exactly  how  much  mischief  may  be  ventured  upon  with  im- 
punity, are  knowledge  enough  for  some  folks. 
Every  leaf  and  every  twig  teem  with  life. 
I  was  rejoiced  at  this  intelligence. 
I  was  afraid  that  I  should  have  lost  the  parcel. 
Which  of  all  these  patterns  is  the  prettier  ? 
They  which  despise  instruction  shall  not  be  wise. 
Both  thou  and  thy  advisers  have  mistaken  their  interest. 


218  SYNTAX. 

A  idle  soul  shall  suffer  hunger. 

The  lips  of  knowledge  is  a  precious  jewel. 

I  and  my  cousin  are  requested  to  attend. 

Can  only  say  that  such  is  my  belief. 

This  is  different  from  the  conscience  being  made  to  feel 

Here  is  ground  for  their  leaving  the  world  with  peace. 

A  man  is  the  noblest  work  of  creation. 

Of  all  other  crimes  willful  murder  is  the  most  atrocious 

The  tribes  whom  I  visited,  are  partially  civilized. 

From  hence  I  conclude  they  are  in  error. 

The  girls'  books  are  neater  than  the  boys. 

I  intended  to  have  transcribed  it. 

Shall  a  character  made  up  of  the  very  worst  passions,  pass  under  the 
name  of  a  gentleman  ? 

Rhoda  ran  in,  and  told  how  Peter  stood  before  the  gate. 

What  is  latitude  and  longitude  ? 

Cicero  was  more  eloquent  than  any  Roman. 

Who  dares  apologize  for  Pizarro, — who   is  but   another  name  for  ra- 
pacity ? 

LESSON  IV. 

Tell  me  whether  you  will  do  it  or  no.  . 

After  the  most  straitest  sect,  I  lived  a  Pharisee. 

We  have  no  more  but  five  loaves  and  two  fishes. 

I  know  not  who  it  was  who  did  it. 

Doubt  not,  little  though  there  be, 
But  I'll  cast  a  crumb  to  thee. 

This  rule  is  the  best  which  can  be  given. 

I  have  never  seen  no  other  way. 

These  are  poor  amends  for  the  men  and  treasures  which  we  have  lost. 

Dost  thou  know  them  boys  ? 

This  is  a  part  of  my  uncle's  father's  estate. 

Many  people  never  learn  to  speak  correct. 

Some  people  are  rash,  and  others  timid ;  those  apprehend  too  much, 
these  too  little. 

Is  it  lawful  for  us  to  give  tribute  to  Caesar  or  no  ? 

It  was  not  worth  while  preserving  any  permanent  enmity. 

I  no  sooner  saw  my  face  in  it,  but  I  was  startled  at  the  shortness  of  it. 

Every  person  is  answerable  for  their  own  conduct. 

They  are  men  that  scorn  a  mean  action,  and  who  will  exert  themselves 
to  serve  you. 

I  do  not  recollect  ever  having  paid  it. 

The  stoics  taught  that  all  crimes  were  equal. 

Every  one  of  these  theories  are  now  exploded. 


MISCELLANEOUS  BtJLES.  219 

Either  of  these  four  will  answer. 

There  is  no  situation  where  he  would  he  happy. 

The  hoy  has  heen  detected  in  stealing,  that  you  thought  so  clever. 

I  will  meet  thee  there  if  thee  please. 

He  is  not  so  sick  but  what  he  can  laugh. 

These  clothes  does  not  fit  me. 

The  audience  was  all  very  attentive. 

Wert  thou  some  star,  which  from  the  ruin'd  roof 

Of  shak'd  Olympus  by  mischance  didst  fall ! — Milton. 

LESSON  V. 

Was  the  master,  or  many  of  the  scholars,  in  the  room  ? 
His  father's  and  mother's  consent  was  asked. 
Whom  is  he  supposed  to  be  ? 
He  is  an  old  venerable  man. 
It  was  then  my  purpose  to  have  visited  Sicily. 
It  is  to  the  learner  only,  and  he  that  is  in  doubt,  that  this  assistance  is 

recommended. 

There  are  not  the  least  hope  of  his  recovery. 
Anger  and  impatience  is  always  unreasonable. 
In  his  letters,  there  are  not  only  correctness  but  elegance. 
Opportunity  to  do  good  is  the  highest  preferment  which  a  noble  mind 

desires. 

The  year  when  he  died  is  not  mentioned. 
Had  I  knew  it,  I  should  not  have  went. 
Was  it  thee  that  spoke  to  me  ? 
The  house  is  situated  pleasantly. 
He  did  it  as  private  as  he  possibly  could. 
Subduing  our  passions  is  the  noblest  of  conquests. 
James  is  more  diligent  than  thee. 
Words  interwove  with  sighs  found  out  their  way. 
He  appears  to  be  diffident  excessively. 
The  number  of  our  days  are  with  thee. 
Like  as  a  father  pitieth  his  children,  so  the  Lord  pitieth  them  that  fear 

him. — Psalms  ciii. 

The  circumstances  of  this  case  is  different. 
Well  for  us,  if  some  such  other  men  should  rise ! 

A  man  that  is  young  in  years  may  be  old  in  hours,  if  he  have  lost  no  time. 
The  chief  captain,  fearing  lest  Paul  should  have  been  pulled  in  pieces 

of  them,  commanded  the  soldiers  to  go  down,  and  to  take  them  by 

force  from  among  them.  —  Acts  xxiii. 

Nay,  weep  not,  gentle  Eros  ;  there  is  left  us 
Ourselves  to  end  ourselves.  —Shakspeare. 


220  SYNTAX. 

V.-ARRANCEMENT. 

The  arrangement  of  words  is  an  important  part  of 
Syntax,  especially  in  the  English  language,  in  which,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  paucity  of  its  inflections,  the  sense  is  made  to 
depend  to  a  very  great  extent  upon  the  order  of  the  terms. 

This  has  been,  in  great  part,  already  considered  in  the  preceding  rules 
and  observations,  but  a  few  additional  hints  and  illustrations  are  here 
inserted. 

1.  The  subject  noun  or  pronoun  naturally  comes  before  the 
verb  ;  and  the  object  or  attribute,  after  it. 

For  cases  of  inversion  of  the  subject  and  verb,  see  Observation  1, 
Rule  VI. 

Inversions  of  any  of  these  are  generally  controlled  by  the 
law  of  emphasis,  which  requires  an  unusual  position  in  the 
sentence  for  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  which  is  to  be  made 
prominent. 

The  following  sentences  will  serve  for  illustration  : — 

"  Into  ifie  valley  of  death  rode  the  six  hundred." 

"  All  bloodless  lay  the  untrodden  snow." 

"  Victoj'ies  indeed  they  were." 

"  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none." 

"  When  Thebes  Epaminondas  rears  again." 

2.  On  the  same  principle,  the  adjective  which,  in  the  natural 
order,  precedes  the  noun,  may  be  made  to  follow  it,  thus  : — 

"  Across  the  meadows,  fresh  and  green." 

Also  when  the  adjective  is  encumbered  with  one  or  more 
adjuncts,  thus: — 

"  To  whom  the  goblin  fuU  of  wrath  replied." 

"  A  man  wise  in  his  own  conceit  can  learn  but  littte." 

3.  The  relative  should  be  as  close  as  possible  to  its  ante- 
cedent, and  no  other  word  should  intervene  that  might  be 
mistaken  for  the  antecedent 

The  following  are  examples  of  such  an  ambiguity  :  — 

"  It  was  David,  the  father  of  Solomon,  who  slew  Goliath." 
"  Why  should  he  keep  a  horse  that  cannot  ride  ? 
"  All  evils  here  contaminate  the  mind, 
That  opulence  departed  leaves  behind*" 


ARRANGEMENT,  221 

4.  Adverbs,  and  all  adverbial  expressions,  should  be  placed 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  which  they  affect. 

This  is  illustrated  under  the  rule  for  adverbs.  The  principle  is  of 
general  application  to  all  classes  of  adjuncts,  the  position  of  which  should 
be  such  as  to  show,  with  the  greatest  possible  clearness,  to  what  words 
they  belong.  The  following  sentence  illustrates  this  principle,  in  the 
correct  position  of  every  adjunct : — "  But  now  ye  seek  to  kill  me,  a  man 
that  hath  told  you  the  truth  which  I  have  heard  of  God:  this  did 
not  Abraham. " — John  viii. 

The  following  is  a  comprehensive  canon  for  the  correction  of  miscel- 
laneous errors  in  construction  not  specifically  referred  to  in  the  foregoing 
rules  and  observations. 

General  Rule. 

In  the  formation  of  sentences,  the  consistency  and  adap- 
tation of  all  the  words  should  be  carefully  observed  ;  and 
a  regular,  clear,  and  correspondent  construction  should  be 
preserved  throughout. 

OBS. — In  the  foregoing  pages,  the  principles  of  syntax  or  construction, 
are  supposed  to  be  pretty  fully  developed  ;  but  there  may  be  in  compo- 
sition many  errors  of  such  a  nature  that  no  rule  of  grammar  can  show 
what  should  be  substituted.  The  greater  the  inaccuracy,  the  more  diffi- 
cult the  correction  ;  because  the  sentence  may  require  a  change  through- 
out. Sometimes  the  faults  may  be  rhetorical  rather  than  grammatical ; 
that  is,  they  may  have  no  reference  to  relation,  agreement,  government, 
or  arrangement,  but  may  be  due  to  an  improper  selection  of  words  or 
phrases.  In  that  case,  the  application  of  other  principles  than  those 
previously  explained  in  syntax  may  be  required. 

False  Syntax. 

EXAMPLE. — If  I  can  contribute  to  your  and  my  country's 
glory. 

FORMTTLE. — Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  your  has  not  a  clear  and  regular  construe 
tion.  But,  according  to  the  General  Rule,  "  In  the  formation  of  sentences,  the  consist- 
ency and  adaptation  of  all  the  words  should  be  carefully  observed  ;  and  a  regular,  clear, 
and  correspondent  construction  should  be  preserved  throughout."  The  sentence  having 
a  double  meaning,  may  be  corrected  in  two  ways  :  thus,  If  I  can  contribute  to  our  coun- 
try's glory— or,  If  I  can  contribute  to  your  glory  and  that  of  my  country. 

ts  there,  then,  more  than  one  true  religion  ? 
The  laws  of  Lycurgus  but  substituted  insensibility  to  enjoy* 
ment, — Goldsmith. 


222  SYNTAX. 

Rain  is  seldom  or  ever  seen  at  Lima. 

The  young  bird  raising  its  open  mouth  for  food,  is  a  natural 
indication  of  corporeal  want. 

There  is  much  of  truth  in  the  observation  of  Ascham. 

Vlopting  the  doctrine  which  he  had  been  taught. 

Tnis  library  exceeded  half  a  million  volumes. 

The  Coptic  alphabet  was  one  of  the  latest  formed  of  any. 

Many  evidences  exist  of  the  proneness  of  men  to  vice. 

To  perceive  nothing,  or  not  to  perceive,  is  the  same. 

The  king  of  France  or  England  was  to  be  the  umpire. 

He  may  be  said  to  have  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen  >  and,  con- 
sequently, entitled  to  the  reward. 

The  men  had  made  inquiry  for  Simon's  house,  and  stood  be- 
fore the  gate. — Acts  x. 

Give  no  more  trouble  than  you  can  possibly  help. 

The  art  of  printing  being  then  unknown,  was  a  circumstance 
in  some  respects  favorable  to  freedom  of  the  pen. 

Another  passion  which  the  present  age  is  apt  to  run  into,  is 
to  make  children  learn  all  things. — Goldsmith. 

He  is  always  the  severest  censor  on  the  merits  of  another,  who 
has  the  least  worth  of  his  own. 

Nor  was  Philip  wanting  in  his  endeavors  to  corrupt  Demos- 
thenes, as  he  had  most  of  the  leading  men  in  Greece. — 
Goldsmith. 

The  Greeks,  fearing  to  be  surrounded  on  all  sides,  wheeled 
about  and  halted,  with  the  river  on  their  backs. — Id. 

Poverty  turns  our  thoughts  too  much  upon  the  supplying  of 
our  wants  ;  and  riches,  upon  enjoying  our  superfluities. 

To  obtain  a  correct  style  requires  few  talents  to  which  most 
men  are  not  born,  or  at  least  may  not  acquire. 

That  brother  should  not  war  with  brother, 
And  worry  and  devour  each  other. — Cowper. 

Such  is  the  refuge  of  our  youth  and  age  ; 

The  first  from  hope,  the  last  from  vacancy. — Byron. 

Triumphant  Sylla  !  couldst  thou  then  divine, 

By  aught  than  Bomans  Rome  should  thus  be  laid  ? — Id, 


ANALYSIS,    PARSING,    AND   CONSTRUCTION         223 

VI— EXERCISES    IN   ANALYSIS,  PARSING,  AND  CON- 
STRUCTION. 

Praxis  V. — Syntactical. 

In  the  Fifth  Praxis,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil— to  analyze  the  sentence 
according  to  the  method  indicated  under  each  example  ;  to  distinguish 
the  parts  of  speech  and  their  classes  ;  t^  mention  their  modifications 
in  order ;  to  point  out  their  relation,  agreement,  or  government ; 
and  to  apply  the  rule  of  Syntax.  He  should  then  be  required  to  con- 
struct five  additional  sentences  of  tlie  same  character. 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED  AND  PARSED. 

"  To  be  continually  subject  to  the  breath  of  slander  will  tarnish  the 
purest  reputation." 
ANALYSIS. — This  istf  simple  declarative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  the  complex  infinitive  phrase,  to  be  continually  subject  to  the  breath  of 
slander  ;  the  predicate  verb  is  will  tarnish ;  the  object  is  reputation. 

Tho  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is  to  be,  and  its  adjuncts  are  continually,  and  the  in- 
definite attribute,  subject,  which  is  modified  by  the  complex  adverbial  phrase,  to 
the  breath  of  slander  ;  the  principal  part  of  this  phrase  is  breath,  which  is  modified 
by  the,  and  the  simple  adjective  phrase,  of  slander. 

The  verb  has  no  adjuncts  ;  the  adjuncts  of  the  object  are  the  and  purest. 
PARSING. — To  be  is  an  irregular  neuter  verb,  from  be,  was,  being,  been ;  found  in  the 
infinitive  mood  and  present  tense,  and  is,  with  the  phrase  of  which  it  is  the  princi- 
pal part,  the  subject  of  the  verb  will  tarnish  ;  according  to  Note  II.,  under  Rule 
VIII.,  which  says,  "  The  infinitive  mood,  a  phrase,  or  a  sentence,  is  sometimes  the 
subject  to  a  verb." 

Continually  is  an  adverb  of  time,  and  relates  to  the  verb  to  be ;  according  to  the  rule 
which  says,  Adverbs  relate,  etc. 

Subject  is  a  common  adjective,  of  the  positive  degree,  compared  only  by  means  of  the 
adverbs,  more  and  most,  less  and  least ;  it  is  taken  abstractly  with  the  infinitive 
to  be  ;  according  to  Exception  2d,  under  Rule  II.,  which  says,  "  With  the  infinitive 
or  a  participle  denoting  being  or  action  in  the  abstract,  an  adjective  is  sometimes 
also  taken  abstractly." 

To  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  between  subject  and  breath ;  according  to 
the  rule,  which  says.  Prepositions  show  the  relation  of  things, 

The  is  the  definite  article,  and  relates  to  breath  ;  according  to  the  rule,  which  says,  etc.. 

Breath  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and 
objective  case,  and  is  governed  by  to  ;  according  to  the  rule,  which  says,  etc. 

Will  tarnish  is  a  regular  active-transitive  verb,  from  tarnish,  tarnished,  tarnishing, 
tarnished ;  found  in  the  indicative  mood,  first-future  tense,  third  person,  and  singu- 
lar number  ;  and  agrees  with  its  subject,  the  infinitive  phrase,  to  be,  etc.;  accord- 
ing to  Note  II.,  under  Rule  VIII.,  which  says,  "  The  infinitive  mood,  a  phrase,  or 
a  sentence,  is  sometimes  the  subject  of  a  verb ;  a  subject  of  this  kind,  however 
composed,  if  it  is  taken  as  one  whole,  requires  a  verb  in  the  third  person  singular." 

Purest  is  a  common  adjective  of  the  superlative  degree,  compared,  pure,  purer,  purest ; 
it  relates  to  reputation  ;  according  to  the  rule,  which  says,  etc. 

Reputation  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender, 
and  objective  case  ;  and  is  governed  by  will  tarnish  ;  according  to  the  rule,  which, 


224  SYNTAX. 

Phrases. 

I.— Subject  Phrases. 

To  train  citizens  is  not  the  work  of  a  day. 

To  be  happy  without  the  approval  of  conscience  is  impossible. 

To  have  remained  calm  under  such  provocation,  was  a  proof  of  remark- 
able self-control. 

To  be  at  once  a  rake  and  glory  in  the  character,  discovers  a  bad  disposi- 
tion and  a  bad  heart. 

To  meet  danger  boldly  is  better  than  to  wait  for  it. 

To  be  satisfied  with  the  acquittal  of  one's  own  conscience,  is  the  mark  of 
a  great  mind. 

To  be  totally  indifferent  to  praise  or  censure,  is  a  real  defect  of  character. 

To  spring  up  from  bed  at  the  first  moment  of  waking,  is  easy  enough 
for  people  habituated  to  it. 

To  laugh  were  want  of  goodness  and  of  grace, 
And  to  be  grave  exceeds  all  power  of  face. 

II.— Object  Phrases. 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 

"  Can  a  youth  who  refuses  to  yield  obedience  to  his  parents,  expect 
to  become  a  good  or  a  wise  man  ?  " 

ANALYSIS. — This  is  a  complex  interrogative  sentence. 

The  principal  clause  is,  Can  a  youth  expect  to  become  a  good  or  wise  man  f  The  de- 
pendent clause  is,  who  refuses  to  yield  obedience  to  his  parents.  The  connective  is 
who. 

The  subject  noun  of  the  principal  clause  is  youth  ;  the  predicate  verb  is  expect ;  the 
object  is  the  infinitive  phrase,  to  become  a  good  or  a  wise  man. 

The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  noun  are  a  and  the  dependent  clause  ;  the  verb  has  no  ad- 
juncts ;  the  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is  to  become  ;  and  its  adjunct  is  the  attri- 
bute man,  which  refers  to  the  subject  youth,  and  is  modified  by  the  adjuncts  a 
good,  and  a  wise,  connected  by  or. 

The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  who  ;  the  predicate  verb  is  refuses  ;  the  object 
is  the  complex  infinitive  phrase,  to  yield  obedience  to  his  parents.  The  principal 
part  of  the  phrase  is  to  yield,  its  adjuncts  are  the  object,  obedience,  and  the  simple 
adverbial  phrase,  to  his  parents ;  the  principal  part  of  this  phrase  is  parents,  and 
its  adjunct  is  his. 

If  you  desire  to  be  free  from  sin,  avoid  temptation. 

By  the  faults  of  others,  wise  men  learn  how  to  correct  their  own. 

In  reasoning,  avoid  blending  arguments  confusedly  together  that  are  of 

a  separate  nature. 

He  who  refuses  to  learn  how  to  avoid  evil,  may  properly  be  deemed, 
guilty  of  it. 


ANALYSIS,    PARSING,    AND   CONSTRUCTION.        225 

He  did  not  oppose  his  son's  going  to  sea,  because  he  desired  to  remove 

him  from  the  evil  influence  of  bad  company, 
'ever  expect  to  be  able  to  govern  others,  unless  jrou  have  learned  how  to 

govern  yourself. 
He  who  loves  to  survey  the  works  of  nature,  can  anticipate,  wherever  he 

may  be,  finding  sources  of  the  purest  enjoyment. 
He  who  attempts  to  please  every  body,  will  soon  become  an  object  o ' 

general  indifference  or  contempt. 

None  but  the  virtuous  dare  hope  in  bad  circumstances. 
If  ever  any  author  deserved  to  be   called  an  original,  it  was  Shaks- 

peare. 

Ill — Attribute  Phrases. 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 

"  The  predominant  passion  of  Franklin  seems  to  have  been  the  love 
of  the  useful." 

ANALYSIS.— This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  passion  ;  the  predicate  verb  is  seems ;  the  attribute  is  the  infinitive 
phrase,  to  have  been  the  love  of  the  useful. 

The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  are  the,  predominant,  and  the  simple  adjective  phrase  of 
Franklin ;  the  predicate  has  no  adjuncts ;  the  principal  part  of  the  attribute 
phrase  is  to  have  been,  and  its  adjunct  is  the  attribute  love,  which  refers  to  the 
subject  passion,  and  is  modified  by  the,  and  the  simple  adjective  phrase,  of  the 
useful: 

[To  have  been  is  used  as  an  adjective,  and  relates  to  passion.] 

^  The  fire  of  our  minds  is  immortal,  and  not  to  be  quenched. 

Universal  benevolence   and  patriotic   zeal   appear  to  have   been   the 
motives  of  all  his  actions. 

Children  should  be  permitted  to  be  children,   and  not   deprived    of 
amusements  proper  for  their  age. 

Was  he  not  to  live  the  best  part  of  his  life  over  again,  and  once  more 
be  all  that  he  ever  had  been  ? 

Criminals  are  observed  to  grow  more  anxious  as  their  trial  approaches. 

Knowledge  is  not  to  be  received  inertly  like  the  influences  of  the  at- 
mosphere, by  a  mere  residence  at  the  place  of  instruction. 
;  The  great  purpose  of  poetry  is  to  carry  the  mind  above  and  beyond  the 
beaten,  dusty,  weary  walks  of  ordinary  life ;  to  lift  it  into  a  purer 
element ;  and  to  breathe  into  it  more  profound  and  generous  emo- 
tions. 

He  seems  to  have  made  an  injudicious  choice,  though  he  is  esteemed  a 
sensible  man. 

Integrity  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  every  situation  of  life. 
15 


226  •  -  PYXTAX. 

v    •V&TI. 

To  be  useful  in  some  degree  is  Within  the  means  of  every  one. 

To  discover  the  true  nature  of  comets,  has  hitherto  proved  beyond  the 

power  of  science. 

His  conduct  was,  under  the  circumstances,  in  very  bad  taste. 
The  merchant  was  to  have  sailed  for  Europe  last  week. 


IV — Adjective  Phrases. 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 

'*  Leaning  my  head  upon  my  hand,  I  began  to  figure  to  myself  the 
miseries  of  confinement." 

ANALYSIS. —This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  /,•  the  predicate  verb  is  began ;  the  object  is  the  complex  infinitive 
phrase,  to  figure  to  myself  the  miseries  of  confinement.  The  principal  part  of  the 
phrase  is  to  figure,  the  adjuncts  of  which  are  the  simple  adverbial  phrase,  to  my- 
self, and  the  object  miseries,  which  is  modified  by  the  and  the  simple  adjective 
phrase,  of  confinement. 

The  adjunct  of  the  subject  is  the  complex  adjective  phrase  leaning  my  head  upon  my 
hand,  the  principal  part  of  which  is  leaning,  and  its  adjuncts,  the  object  head, 
modified  by  my,  and  the  simple  adverbial  phrase,  upon  my  hand,  the  principal 
part  of  which  is  hand,  and  its  adjunct,  my. 

j    Life  bears  us  on  like  the  stream  of  a  mighty  river. 

0  Augustus  had  no  lawful  authority  to  make  a  change  in  the  Roman  con- 
stitution. 

*L  A  habit  of  sincerity  in  acknowledging  faults,  is  a  guard  against  commit- 
ting them. 

rThe  atrocious  crime  of  being  a  young  man,  I  shall  attempt  neither  to 
palliate  nor  deny. 

£  Envy,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  brightness  of  another's  prosperity, 
like  the  scorpion,  confined  within  the  circle  of  fire,  stings  itself  to 

.  death. 

Y    The  requisites  for  a  first-rate  actor  demand  a  combination  of  talents  and 

accomplishments  not  easily  to  be  found. 

*1  The  conflicts  of  the  world  were  not  to  take  place  altogether  *  on  the 
tented  field ;  but  ideas,  leaping  from  the  world's  awakened  intellect, 
and  burning  all  over  with  indestructible  life,  were  to  be  marshaled 
against  principalities  and  powers. 

^f   The  ship,  unable  to  pursue  her  way, 
Tossing  about,  at  her  own  guidance  lay. 

*  Altogether  is  here  an  adverb  relating  to  the  adverbial  phrase,  on  tht  tented  field. 
(Se«  Obs.  4,  under  Rule  III.) 


ANALYSIS,    PARSING,   AND   CONSTRUCTION.        227 


V.— Adverbial  Phrases. 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 

"  We  live  in  the  past  by  a  knowledge  of  its  history,  and  in  the  future 
by  hope  and  anticipation." 

ANALYSIS. — This  is  a  compound  declarative  sentence,  abbreviated  in  form,  and  consist- 
ing of  the  two  coordinate  clauses,  We  live  in  the  past  by  a  knowledge  of  its  history, 
and  (we  live)  in  the  future  by  hope  and  anticipation,  connected  by  and-. 
The  subject  of  each  clause  is  we,  and  the  predicate  verb  is  live.  The  adjuncts  of  the 
verb  in  the  first  clause  are  the  simple  adverbial  phrase,  in  the  past,  and  the  com- 
plex adverbial  phrase,  by  a  knowledge  of  its  history  ;  the  principal  part  is  knowl- 
edge, and  its  adjuncts  are  a  and  the  simple  adjective  phrase,  of  its  history.  [The 
adjuncts  of  the  verb  in  the  second  clause  are  of  the  same  character,  and  may  be 
analyzed  in  a  similar  manner.] 

'  At  that  hour,  6  how  vain  was  all  sublunary  happiness ! 
*L  Abstain  from  injuring  others,  if  you  wish  to  be  in  safety. 
3  The  public  are  often  deceived  by  false  appearances  and  extravagant 

pretensions. 
l_/_  Day  and  night  yield  us  contrary  blessings ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  assist 

each  other,  by  giving  fresh  lustre  to  the  delights  of  both. 
A^Man's  happiness  or  misery  is,  in  a  great  measure,  put  into  his  own 
,  hands. 

'<*  {Has  not  sloth,  or  pride,  or  ill  temper,  or  sinful  passion,  misled  you 

from  the  path  of  sound  and  wise  conduct"?! 
*)     Man  was  created  to  search  for  truth,  to  love  fne  beautiful,  to  desire  the 

good,  and  to  do  the  best. 

^Representation  and  taxation  should  always  go  hand  in  hand. 
o  The  statement  which  he  made  at  first,  he  reiterated,  again  and  again, 

without  the  least  variation. 

,  OJacob  loved  all  his  sons,  but  he  loved  Joseph  the  best. 
jf  There  is  very  often  more  happiness  in  the  cottage  of  the  peasant  than  in 

the  palace  of  the  king. 

VI.— Explanatory  Phrases. 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 

"It  is  useless  to  expatiate  upon  the  beauties  of  nature  to  one  who  is 
blind." 

ANALYSIS. — This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 
The  principal  clause  is,  It  is  useless  to  expatiate  upon  the  beauties  of  nature  to  on«, 

and  the  dependent  clause  is,  who  is  blind.    The  connective  is  who. 
The  subject  of  the  principal  clause  is  it ;  the  predicate  verb  is  <* ;  and  the  attribute  is 


228  SYNTAX. 

The  adjunct  of  the  subject  is  the  complex  explanatory  phrase,  to  expatiate  upon  th& 
beauties  of  nature  to  one.  The  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is  to  expatiate,  tho 
adjuncts  of  which  are  the  complex  adverbial  phrase,  upon  the  beauties  of  nature, 
and  the  simple  adverbial  phrase  to  one.  The  principal  part  of  the  former  is 
beauties,  and  its  adjuncts  are  the  and  the  simple  adjective  phrase  of  nature ;  the 
principal  part  of  the  latter  is  one,  and  its  adjunct  is  the  dependent  adjective  clause 
who  is  blind. 

The  subject  of  the  dei»endent  clause  is  who ;  the  predicate  verb,  is ;  and  the  attributa, 
blind  ;  each  without  adjuncts. 

It  is  always  profitable  to  know  our  own  faults  and  infirmities. 

It  is  the  characteristic  of  a  pedant  to  make  an  idle  display  of  his 

learning. 

If  what  I  say  be  not  true,  it  is  easy  to  convict  me  of  falsehood. 
It  is  very  often  impossible  to  estimate  the  extent  of  injury  which  a 

careless  word  will  produce. 
How  happy  had  it  been  for  him  to  have  died  in  that  sickness,  when  all 

Italy  was  putting  up  vows  and  prayers  for  his  safety  ! 
it  is  certainly  in  the  power  of  a  sensible  and  well-educated  mother  to 

inspire  such  tastes  and  propensities  in  her  son  as  shall  nearly  decide 

the  destiny  of  the  future  man. 

It  is  impossible  to  read  a  page  in  Plato,  Tully,  or  any  of  the  other  emi- 
nent moralists  of  antiquity,  without  being  a  greater  and  better  man 

for  it. 
If  we  would  improve  our  minds  by  conversation,  it  is  a  great  happiness 

to  be  acquainted  wjth  persons  wiser  than  ourselves. 
If  we  were  base  enough  to  desire  it,  it  is  now  too  late  to  retire  from  the 

contest. 
It  is  a  miserable  state  of  mind  to  have  few  things  to  desire,  and  many 

things  to  fear. 

VII.— Independent   Phrases. 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 
"  This  proposition  being  admitted,  I  now  state  my  argument. " 

ANALYSIS. — This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  /;  the  predicate  verb  is  state ;  the  object  is  argument. 

The  subject  has  no  adjuncts ;  the  adjunct  of  the  verb  is  now ;  the  adjunct  of  the  ob- 
ject is  my. 

This  proposition  being  admitted  is  an  independent  phrase ;  the  principal  part  ispropo- 
sition,  and  its  adjuncts  are  this  and  being  admitted. 

EXAMPLE  H. 

"One  day,  I  was  guilty  of  an  action,  which,  to  say  the  least,  was  in 
very  bad  taste. 

ANALYSIS. — This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 

The  principal  clause  is,  One  day  I  was  guilty  of  an  action ;  and  the  dependent  clause 
is,  which,  to  say  the  least,  was  in  very  bad  taste.  The  connective  is  which. 


ANALYSIS,    PAUSING,   AND   CONSTRUCTION.       229 

The  subject  of  the  principal  clause  is  /;  the  predicate  verb  is  was ;  and  the  attribute 

is  guilty. 
The  adjunct  of  the  verb  is  the  adverbial  phrase  (prepositional  in  form),  (on)  one  day ; 

the  adjunct  of  the  attribute  is  the  adverbial  phrase  of  an  action.     Of  the  latter 

phrase,  action  is  the  principal  part,  and  its  adjuncts  are  an  and  the  dependent 

clause. 
The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  which;  the  predicate  verb  is  was;  and  the 

attribute,  the  adjective  phrase  in  very  bad  taste. 
Neither  has  any  adjuncts ;  the  principal  part  of  the  attribute  phrase  is  taste ;  bad 

being  its  primary,  and  very  its  secondary  adjunct. 
To  say  the  leant,  is  an  independent  phrase  of  the  infinitive  form.    The  principal  part  ii 

to  say,  and  its  adjunct,  the  object  least,  modified  by  the. 

They  being  absent,  we  cannot  come  to  a  determination. 
There  being  much  obscurity  in  the  case,  he  refuses  to  decide  upon  it. 
To  be  plain  with  you,  your  conduct  is  very  much  to  be  censured. 
Fathers !  Senators  of  Rome !  the  arbiters  of  nations  I  to  you  I  fly  for 

refuge. 

The  baptism  of  John  ;  was  it  from  heaven,  or  of  men  ? 
Generally  speaking,  the  life  of  all  truly  great  men  has  been  a  life  oi 

intense  and  incessant  labor. 
To  give  one  instance  more,  and  then  I  will  have  done  with  this  ranv 

bling  discourse. — Hazlitt. 

The  great  utility  of  knowledge  and  religion  being  thus  apparent,  it  is 
highly  incumbent  upon  us  to  pay  a  studious  attention  to  them  in 
our  youth. 

A  shoe  coming  loose  from  the  fore-foot  of  the  thill-horse,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ascent  of  Mount  Taurina,  the   postilion  dismounted, 
twisted  the  shoe  off,  and  put  it  in  his  pocket. — Sterne. 
Want,  and  incurable  disease,  (fell  pair !) 
On  hopeless  multitudes  remorseless  seize 
At  once ;  and  make  a  refuge  of  the  grave. 
\/Soldier,  rest !  thy  warfare  o'er, 

Sleep  the  sleep  that  knows  not  breaking : 
Dream  of  battle-fields  no  more, 
Days  of  danger,  nights  of  waking. 


Clauses* 
VIII.— Subject  Clauses. 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 

"That  it  is  our  duty  to  obey  the  laws  of  the  country  in  wnlch  we 
Jve,  does  not  admit  of  question." 


230  SYNTAX. 

ANALYSIS.— -This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  the  dependent  clause,  That  it  is  our  duty  to  obey  tht  laws  of  the  country 
in  which  we  live  ;  the  predicate  verb  is  does  admit. 

The  adjuncts  of  the  verb  are  not  and  the  phrase  of  question. 

The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  it ;  the  predicate  verb  is  is ;  and  the  attribute 
is  duty. 

The  adjunct  of  the  subject  is  the  complex  explanatory  phrase,  to  obey  the  laws  of  the 
country  in  which  ice  live ;  the  adjunct  of  the  attribute  is  our. 

The  principal  part  of  the  explanatory  phrase  is  to  obey,  which  is  modified  by  the  object 
laws,  the  adjuncts  of  which  are  the  and  the  complex  phrase,  of  the  country  in 
which  we  live.  The  principal  part  of  this  phrase  is  country,  and  its  adjuncts  are 
the  and  the  simple  adjective  clause,  in  which  we  live.  The  subject  of  the  clause  is 
we ;  the  predicate  verb  is  live,  which  is  modified  by  the  simple  adverbial  phrase 
in  which. 

OBS. — It  will  be  perceived  from  the  example  given  in  this  exercise, 
that  a  complex  sentence  may  be  analyzed  by  treating  it  as  a  whole, 
pointing  out  the  subject,  predicate,  etc.,  and  analyzing  the  dependent 
clause  in  its  proper  place,  as  one  of  the  principal  parts,  or  an  adjunct  to 
either  ;  instead  of  dividing  the  sentence  immediately  into  the  principal 
and  dependent  clauses,  explaining  their  connection,  and  then  analyzing 
them  separately,  as  in  the  previous  exercises.  The  latter  method  is 
preferable  for  beginners,  but  for  advanced  scholars  should  give  place  to 
the  other,  which  is  more  logical,  and  easier  for  intricate  sentences. 

I   That  the  government  of  our  desires  is  essential  to  the  enjoyment  of 

true  liberty,  is  a  truth  never  to  be  forgotten. 
L-That  it  is  glorious  to  die  for  one's  country,  is  a  sentiment  uniformly 

cherished  by  all  good  men. 

-•  At  what  period  the  poems  of  Homer  were  composed,  has  not  been  posi- 
tively ascertained. 

Who  was  the  author  of  the  Letters  of  Phalaris,  has  been  the  subject  of 
very  ingenious  and  learned  discussion. 

That  an  author's  work  is  the  mirror  of  his  mind,  is  a  position  that  has 

led  to  very  false  conclusions. 

^  Why  a  man  with  so  excellent  an  education,  and  surrounded  with  so 
many  inducements  to  a  virtuous  life,  should  have  fallen  into  habits 
of  vice  and  dissipation,  is  inexplicable. 

That  truth  finally  must  prevail  over  error,  and  virtue  be  triumphant  in 
a  struggle  with  vice,  are  highly  cherished  sentiments  among  man- 
kind. 

How  he  was  to  extricate  his  army  from  so  dangerous  a  position,  baffled 
all  conjecture. 

Whether  Columbus  was  the  first  discoverer  of  America  or  not,  is  a  ques- 
tion among  historians. 

"What  can  be  more  strange  than  that  an  ounce  weight  should  balance 
hundreds  of  pounds  by  the  intervention  of  a  few  bars  of  thin  iron  t 


ANALYSIS,    PARSING,    AND   CONSTRUCTION.       231 

IX.— Object  Clauses. 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 

"  Children  should  know  that  it  is  their  duty  to  honor  their  parents,  t« 
ask  advice  of  them,  and  to  observe  their  wishes." 

ANALYSIS. — This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 
The  subject  is  children ;  the  predicate  verb  is  should  know  ;  the  object  is  the  depen  1- 

ent  clause,  That  it  is  their  duty,  etc.     That  is  the  connective. 
The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  U  ;  the  predicate  verb  is  is  ;  the  attribute  is 

ditty. 
The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  are  the  explanatory  phrases,  to  honor  their  parents,  to  ask 

advice  of  them,  and  to  observe  their  wishes. 

He  knew  that  solicitations  or  remonstrances  would  avail  little  with  the 
companions  of  his  enterprise. 

Those  who  are  skilled  in  the  extraction  and  preparation  of  metals,  de- 
clare that*iron  is  everywhere  to  be  found. 

Columbus  felt  that  there  was  a  continent  to*be  discovered,  and  he  dis- 
covered it. 

The  authors  of  the  American  Revolution  believed  that  they  were  in  the 
service  of  their  own,  and  of  all  future  generations. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  how  some  minds  seem  almost  to  create  them- 
selves, springing  up  under  every  disadvantage,  and  working  their 
solitary  but  irresistible  way  through  a  thousand  obstacles. 

Any  man  who  attends  to  what  passes  within  himself,  may  easily  discern 
that  the  human  character  is  a  very  complicated  system. 

How  can  he  exalt  his  thoughts  to  anything  great  or  noble,  who  only 
believes  that,  after  a  short  term  on  this  stage  of  existence,  he  is  to 
sink  into  oblivion,  and  to  lose  his  consciousness  forever  ? 

See,  Aspasio,  how  all  is  calculated  to  administer  the  highest  delight  to 
mankind. 

The  majority  of  the  assembly  wisely  considered  that  to  decline  a  cessa- 
tion, would  be  to  refute  all  their  professions  of  loyalty. 
Haply  some  hoar y  -headed  swain  may  say, 

"  Oft  have  we  seen  him  at  the  peep  of  dawn, 
Brushing,  with  hasty  steps,  the  dews  away, 
To  meet  the  sun  upon  the  upland  lawn." 

X — Object  Clauses.    (INFINITIVE.) 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 
"  Let  the  child  learn  what  is  appropriate  for  his  years." 

ANALYSIS.— This  is  a  complex  imperative  sentence.     The  subject  is  thou  (understood) ; 

the  predicate  verb  is  let ;  the  object  is  the  infinitive  clause,  the  child  learn,  etc. 
The  subject  noun  of  the  dependent  clause  is  child  ;  the  predicate  verb  is  (to)  learn; 


232  SYNTAX. 

the  object  is  that  (comprehended  in  the  double  relative  what,  equivalent  to  thai 

which). 
The  adjunct  of  the  object  is  the  simple  adjective  clause,  which  is  appropriate  for  hit 

years. 
The  subject  of  this  clause  is  which  ;  the  predicate  verb,  is  ;  the  attribute,  appropriate, 

modified  by  the  simple  adverbial  phrase,  for  his  years. 

Thou  think'st  it  folly  to  be  wise  too  soon. 

In  this  melancholy  state  he  commanded  messengers  to  recall  his  eldest 

son,  Abouzaid,  from  the  army. 

Graves  describes  the  steps  by  which  Shenstone  made  the  Leasowes  be- 
come what  it  at  last  was. 
Let  us  all,  in  our  mourning  attire,  and  accompanied  by  our  children,  go 

and  entreat  Veturia,  the  mother  of  Coriolanus,  to  intercede  with 

her  son  for  our  common  country. 
Madame  Roland  heard  herself  sentenced  to  death  with  the  air  of  one 

who  saw  in  her  condemnation  merely  her  title  to  immortality. 
Goldsmith  said  to  Johnson  very  wittily  and  very  justly,  "If  you  were 

to  write  a  fable  about  little  fishes,  doctor,  you  would  make  the  little 

fishes  talk  like  whales. " 
The  curiosity  of  the  Caliph  being  awakened  to  know  the  cause  of  his 

despair,  he   ordered  Mezrour  to  knock  at  the  door,  which  being 

opened,  they  pleaded  the  privilege  of  strangers  to  enter  for  rest  and 

refreshment. 

See  some  strange  comfort  every  state  attend, 
And  pride  bestow'd  on  all,  a  common  friend  : 
See  some  fit  passion  every  age  supply  ; 
Hope  travels  through,  nor  quits  us  when  we  die. 
On  what  foundation  stands  the  warrior's  pride, 
How  just  his.  hopes,  let  Swedish  Charles  decide. 

XI — Attribute  Clauses. 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 

"  The  truth  is,  that  the  most  elaborate  and  manifold  apparatus  of  in- 
struction can  impart  nothing  of  importance  to  the  passive  and  inert 
mind." 

ANALYSIS.— This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  the  truth  ;  the  predi- 
cate verb  is  is ;  the  attribute  is  the  dependent  clause,  The  most  elaborate  and 
manifold  apparatus,  etc.  The  connective  is  that. 

The  subject  noun  of  the  dependent  clause  is  apparatus  ;  the  predicate  verb  is  can  im- 
part ;  the  object  is  nothing.  The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  noun  are  the,  elaborate^ 
manifold,  and  of  instruction  ;  most  is  an  adjunct  of  elaborate  and  manifold  ;  the 
adjunct  of  the  verb  fS  the  adverbial  phrase  to  the  passive  and  inert  mind ;  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  which  is  mind,  and  its  adjuncts  the,  and  passive  and  inert;  the  ad 
junct  of  the  object  is  the  simple  adjective  phrase,  of  importance. 


FAfeSttfG,    ASTD   CONSTRUCTION.       %<& 

The  crying  sin  of  all  governments  is,  that  they  meddle  injuriously  with 
human  affairs,  and  obstruct  the  processes  of  nature  by  excessive 
legislation. 

One  of  the  most  useful  effects  of  action  is,  that  it  renders  repose  agree- 
able. 

The  only  advantage  which,  in  the  voyage  of  life,  the  cautious  had 
above  the  negligent,  was,  that  -they  sunk  later,  and  more  suddenly. 

The  characteristic  peculiarity  of  the  "Pilgrim's  Progress"  is,  that  it  is 
the  only  work  of  its  kind  which  possesses  a  strong  human  interest. 

The  proper  end  of  instruction  is,  not  that  the  scholar  should  be  able  to 
repeat  the  thoughts  of  others,  but  that  he  should  have  the  power  to 
think  correctly  for  himself. 

The  physician's  directions  were,  that  the  patient  should  travel  to  the 
South,  that  he  should  avoid  excitement,  and  that  he  should  be 
careful  in  jiiet. 

XII.— Adjective  Clauses. 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 

"  Whoever  yields  to  temptation,  debases  himself  with  a  debasement 
from  which  he  can  never  arise." 
ANALYSIS. — This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 
The  subject  nominative  is  he  (comprehended  in  the  double  relative  whoever)',  the 

predicate  verb  is  debases ;  the  object  is  himself. 

The  adjunct  of  the  subject  nominative  is  the  simple  adjective  clause,  who  yields  to 
temptation ;  the  adjunct  of  the  predicate  is  the  complex  phrase,  with  a  debase- 
ment from  which  he  can  never  arise.  The  principal  part  of  the  phrase  is  debase- 
ment, and  its  adjuncts  are  a  and  the  simple  adjective  clause,  from  which  he  can 
never  arise. 
The  chief  misfortunes  that  befall  us  in  life,  can  be  traced  to  some  vices 

and  follies  which  we  have  committed. 
Every  society  has  a  right  to  prescribe  for  itself  the  terms  on  which  its 

members  shall  be  admitted. 
There  is  no  foundation  for  the  popular  doctrine,  that  a  state  may  nourish 

by  arts  and  crimes. 
It  is  necessary  to  combat  vigilantly  that  favorite  idea  of  lively  ignorance. 

that  study  is  an  enemy  to  originality. 
Most  of  the  troubles  which  we  meet  with  in  the  world,  arise  from  an 

irritable  temper,  or  from  improper  conduct. 

Neither  his  vote,  his  influence,  nor  his  purse,  was  ever  withheld  from 
the  cause  in  which  he  had  engaged. 

He  that  has  light  within  his  own  clear  breast, 
May  sit  in  the  center,  and  enjoy  bright  day  ; 
But  he  that  hides  a  dark  soul  and  foul  thoughts, 
Benighted  walks  under  the  mid-day  sun. 


SYNTAX. 

No  flocks  that  range  the  valley,  free, 

To  slaughter  I  condemn  ; 
Taught  by  that  power  that  pities  me, 

I  learn  to  pity  them, 

XIII.— Adverbial   Clauses. 
EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 

"  Education,  when  it  works  upon  a  noble  mind,  draws  out  to  view 
many  latent  virtues  and  perfections,  which,  without  its  aid,  would 
never  be  able  to  make  their  appearance." 

ANALYSIS.— This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 
The  principal  dame  is,  Education,  when.  U  wort*  upon  a  noVe  mind,  draws  out  to 

view  meaty  latent  virtue*  and  perfection*;  and  the  dependent  is,  Which,  without 

it*  ate  uvuld  nerer  be  able  to  mate  their  mppearmtice.    The  connective  IB  wMc*. 
TheftrstismcompteLimmber;  therabjectisttrtfcafum,  the  predicate  TO*  is  draw*  ; 

the  objects  are  virtue*  and  perfection*. 
The  adjuncts  of  the  verb  are  the  adverbial  danse,  token  U  work*  upon  a  noble  mind, 

out,  and  the  simple  adverbial  phrase  to  view  ;  the  adjuncts  of  the  objects  an 

many  nnd  latent. 
The  abject  of  the  adverbial  clause  is  tt,  the  predicate  verb  is  wort*.    The  adjuncts 

of  the  verb  are  when,  and  the  adverbial  phrase,  upon  a  noble  mind.    The  con- 


istoJWc*,-  the  predicate  verb  is  would  be;  the  at- 


The  adjuncts  of  the  predicate  are  the  phrase,  without  it*  aid,  and 


to  mate  is  the  principal  part,  and  its  adjunct  the  object 


When  sickness,  infirmity,  or  reverse  of  fortune,  affects  us,  the  sincerity 

of  friendship  is  proved. 
When  the  Creator  had  finished  his  labor  on  our  planet,  his  last  and 

noblest  work  being  man,  he  conferred  on  him  a  partnership  in  his 

labors. 

Loose  conversation  operates  on  the  soul,  as  poison  does  on  the  body. 
When  Education  had  proceeded,  in  this  manner,  to  the  part  of  the 

mountain  where  the  declivity  began  to  grow  craggy,  she  resigned 

her  charge  to  two  powers  of  superior  aspect. 
While  I  was  musing  on  this  miserable  scene,  my  protector  called  out  to 

me,  "  Remember,  Theodore,  and  be  wise,  and  let  not  Habit  prevail 

against  thee.n 
While  this  thought  passed  over  my  mind,  I  lost  sight  of  the  remotest  star, 

and  the  last  glimmering  of  light  was  quenched  in  utter  darkness. 

The  agonies  of  despair  every  moment  increased,  as  every  moment 

augmented  my  distance  from  the  last  habitable  world.     I  reflected 

with  intolerable  anguish,  that,  when  ten  thousand  thousand  years 


AtfAl/TSIS,    PARSING,    AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

had  carried  me  beyond  the  reach  of  all  but  that  Power  who  fills  in- 
finitude, I  should  still  look  forward  into  an  immense  abyss  of  dark- 
ness, through  which  I  should  still  drive  without  succor  and  without 
society,  farther  and  farther  still,  forever  and  forever. 


XIV.— Explanatory  Clauses 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 

"Why  is  it  that  to  man  have  been  given  passions  which  he  cannot 
tame,  and  which  sink  him  below  the  brute  ?  " 

ANALYSIS. — This  is  a  complex  interrogative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  it ;  the  predicate  verb  is  is ;  the  adjunct  of  the  subject  is  the  complex 
explanatory  clause,  to  man  have  been  given  passions  which  he  cannot  tame,  and 
which  sink  him  below  the  brute ;  the  connective  is  that :  the  adjunct  of  the  predi- 
cate is  why.  ^ 

The  subject  noun  of  the  explanatory  clause  is  passiont ;  the  predicate  is  have  been 
given.  The  adjuncts  of  the  subject  are  the  simple  adjective  clauses,  which  he  can- 
not tame,  and  which  sink  him  below  the  brute.  [Each  to  be  analyzed  as  in  previous 
exercises.] 

It  was  the  fate  of  Dr.  Bentley,  that  every  work,  executed  or  projected 

by  him,  should  be  assailed. 
It  is  surprising  in  what  countless  swarms  the  bees  have  overspread  the 

far  West,  within  but  a  moderate  number  of  years. 
To  tell  you  the  why  and  the  wJierefore  would  take  too  long ;  suffice  it  to 

say,  that  they  hate  us  with  a  deadly  hatred. 
Seeing  these,  I  at  length  comprehended  the  meaning  of  those  terrible 

words,  "  Must  we  kill  them  both  ?  " 
It  might  be  expected,  that  humanity  itself  would  prevent  them  from 

breaking  into  the  last  retreat  of  the  unfortunate. 

It  is  an  exquisite  and  beautiful  thing  in  our  nature,  that  when  the  heart 

is  touched  and  softened  by  some  tranquil  happiness  or  affectionate 

feeling,  the  memory  of  the  dead  comes  over  it  most  powerfully  and 

irresistibly. 

Interesting  it  is  to  observe  how  certainly  all  deep  feelings  agree  in  this, 

that  they  seek  for  solitude,  and  are  nursed  by  solitude. 
Is  it  because  foreigners  are  in  a  condition  to  set  our  malice  at  defiance, 
that  we  are  willing  to  contract  engagements  of  friendship  ? 
See  !  and  confess,  one  comfort  still  must  rise  ; 
'Tis  this,  though  man's  a  fool,  yet  God  is  wise. 
Better  for  us,  perhaps,  it  might  appear, 
Were  there  all  harmony,  all  virtue  here ; 
That  never  air  nor  ocean  felt  the  wind, 
That  never  passion  discomposed  the  mind. 


236 


XV.—  Parenthetical  Clauses. 

EXAMPLE  ANALYZED. 

"The  virtuous  man,  it  has  been  beautifully  said,  proceeds  without 
constraint  in  the  path  of  his  duty." 

ANALYSIS.  —  This  is  a  compound  declarative  sentence  ;  composed  of  the  simple  clause, 
The  virtuous  man  proceeds  without  constraint  in  the,  path  of  his  duty,  and  the 
parenthetical  clause,  It  hat  been  beautifully  said.  [Let  the  pupil  analyze  each 
clause  as  in  the  preceding  exercises.] 

OBS.  —  Sentences  of  this  form  may  often  be  analyzed  by  considering 
the  parenthetical  clause,  the  principal  one,  and  the  rest  of  the  sentence 
dependent  upon  it.  The  mode  of  analysis,  indicated  in  the  example, 
is,  however,  preferable  ;  as,  although  the  parenthetical  clause  is  united 
in  construction  with  the  other  part  of  the  sentence,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  complete  the  sense. 

How  dangerous  soever  idleness  may  be,  are  there  not  pleasures,  it  may 

be  said,  which  attend  it  ? 
"  I  leave  my  second  son,  Andrew,"  said  the  expiring  miser,  "my  whole 

estate  ;  and  desire  him  to  be  frugal." 
"Go  forth,"  it  had  been  said  to  Elijah,  "and  stand  upon  the  mount 

before  the  Lord." 
"  I  think,  boys,"  said  the  schoolmaster,  when  the  clock  struck  twelve, 

"  that  I  shall  give  you  an  extra  half  -holiday  this  afternoon." 
"  You  remember  my  garden,  Henry,"  whispered  the  old  man,  anxious 
to  rouse  him,  for  a  dullness  seemed  gathering  upon  the  child,  "and 
how  pleasant  it  used  to  be  in  the  evening-time  ?  " 

"Therefore,"  said  he,  "hath  it  in  all  confidence  been  ordered  by  the 
Commons  of  Great  Britain,  that  I  impeach  Warren  Hastings  of  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanors." 

"  Oh,  no,"  said  the  Earth,  "  thou  shalt  not  lie, 
Neglected  and  lone,  on  my  lap  to  die, 
Thou  fine  and  delicate  child  of  the  sky." 
No  further  seek  his  merits  to  disclose, 

Or  draw  his  frailties  from  their  dread  abode, 
(There  they  alike  in  trembling  hope  repose,) 
The  bosom  of  his  Father,  and  his  God. 


Compound  Sentences. 
XVI.— Independent  Clauses. 

DBS.  1. — In  analyzing  compound  sentences,  at  this  stage  of  the  pupil's 
progress,  the  leading  dause  should  be  distinguished  from  the  subordinate 


ANALYSIS,    PAUSING,    AND   CONSTRUCTION.      237 

clause.  It  must,  however,  be  understood,  that  the  dependence  of  the 
latter  upon  the  former,  is  logical,  not  grammatical,  differing  in  this 
respect  altogether  from  the  relation  of  the  principal  and  the  dependent 
clause  of  a  complex  sentence,  which  is  purely  grammatical,  since  the 
latter  is  an  adjunct,  or  used  as  one  of  the  principal  parts,  in  the  princi- 
pal clause. 

OBS.  2. — Some  clauses  are  simply  connected  without  logical  or  gram- 
matical dependence.  These  may  be  called  co-ordinate  clauses. 

In  the  following  examples  of  analysis,  for  the  purpose  of  abbreviation,  and  in  order  to 
furnish  the  pupil  with  a  ready  method  of  clearly  representing,  in  written  exercises,  the 
parts  of  a  sentence  and  their  relations,  the  compound  clauses  or  members  are  marked 
by  capitals  ;  the  simple  clauses,  by  numerals ;  and  the  phrases,  by  small  letters.  When 
these  are  all  written  out  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur,  care  being  takem  to  unite  in 
brackets  dependent  clauses  contained  in  the  same  sentence  or  member,  the  character  and 
composition  of  the  sentence  analyzed  will  be  exhibited. 

According  to  this  mode  of  representation,  a  simple  sentence  would,  of  course,  have  no 
numerical  or  litej^l  designation ;  1  would  indicate  a  complex  sentence  with  a  simple 
dependent  clause ;  1,  2,  a  compound  sentence,  consisting  of  two  simple  clauses,  but  if 
enclosed  in  brackets  thus  [1,  2],  a  complex  sentence  containing  two  dependent  clauses; 
A,  1,  2,  B,  3,  4,  a  compound  sentence  composed  of  two  compound  members ;  but  A,  [1, 
2],  B,  [3,  4],  a  compound  sentence  composed  of  two  complex  members,  each  containing 
two  dependent  clauses;  A,  1,  B,  2,  a  compound  sentence  composed  of  two  complex 
members,  each  containing  one  dependent  clause ;  A,  1,  2,  B,  8,  a  compound  sentence 
composed  of  a  compound  and  a  complex  member;  A,  1,  B,  2,  3,  a  compound  sentence 
containing  a  complex  and  a  compound  member  ;  A,  B,  1,  a  complex  sentence  containing 
a  complex  dependent  member,  which  itself  contains  a  complex  dependent  member ;  and 
soon. 

This  mode  of  presenting  to  the  eye  the  general  conformation  of  a  sentence,  its  mem- 
bers, clauses,  etc.,  in  their  order  and,  partially,  their  dependence,  will  be  found  easy 
after  the  previous  practice,  and  cannot  fail  to  be  useful.  In  the  forms  of  analysis  given, 
S.  stands  for  the  subject  noun  or  pronoun  without  its  adjuncts ;  P.,  for  the  predicate 
verb ;  O.,  for  the  object ;  Att.,  for  the  attribute ;  Ad.,  for  adjuncts. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  pupil  that  the  complete  subject  consists  of  the  subject 
noun  or  pronoun  and  all  its  adjuncts ;  and  the  complete  predicate,  of  the  predicate  verb 
and  all  its  adjuncts,  including  the  object  and  attribute ; — that,  in  fact,  there  are  but  two 
parts  in  every  sentence,  each  of  which  is  separable  into  one  primary  part  and  adjuncts. 

EXAMPLES  ANALYZED. 

1.  "  Let  him  that  hastens  to  he  rich,  take  heed  lest  he  suddenly 
become  poor." 

ANALYSIS. — Compound  imperative  sentence,  consisting  of 

A.  (Leading)  Let  him  that  hastens  to  be  rich,  take  heed  ; 

1.   (Subordinate)  He  suddenly  become  poor.    Connective,  lest. 

A.  Complex  imperative  member. 

S.  Thou  (understood) ;  P.  let ;  O.  him  that  hastens  to  be  rich,  take  he*.      (B.) 

B.  Complex  infinitive  member. 

S.  him  ;  P.  take ;  O.  heed. 
Ad.  S.  that  hastens  to  be  rich.    (2.) 
2.  Simple  adjective  clause. 

S.  that ;  P.  hastens ;  Ad.  P.  to  be  rich,    (a,) 


238  SYOTAX 

a.  Simple  adverbial  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  to  be ;  Ad.  rich  (indirect  attribute). 
1.  Simple  clause. 

S.  fie ;  P.  become  ;  Att.  poor ;  Ad.  P.  suddenly. 

2.   "Say  not  thou,  'I  will  recompense  evil;'  but  wait  on  the  Lord, 
and  he  shall  save  thee." 

ANALYSIS. — Compound  imperative  sentence,  consisting  of  two  co-ordinate  members : 

A.  Say  not  thou,  "  /  wUl  recompense  evil."1 

B.  Wait  on  the  Lord,  and  fie  shall  save  thee.    Con.  but. 

A.  Complex  imperative  member. 

S.  thou;  P.  say ;  O.  ItoiU  recompense  evil  (1) ;  Ad.  P.  not. 

1.  Simple  declarative  clause. 

S.  /;  P.  will  recompense  ;  O.  evil. 

B.  Compound  imperative  member. 

2.  Wait  on  the  Lord. 

3.  He  shall  save  thee ;  connective,  and. 

2.  Simple  imperative  clause. 

S.  Thou  (understood) ;  P.  watt ;  Ad.  P.  on  the  Lord,  (a.) 
a.  Simple  adverbial  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  Lord ;  Ad.  the. 
e.  Simple  declarative  clause. 

S.  He ;  P.  shall  save ;  O.  thee. 

If  thine  enemy  be  hungry,  give  him  bread  to  eat ;  if  he  be  thirsty,  give 
him  water  to  drink. 

If  the  mind  were  left  uncultivated,  though  nothing  else  should  find  en- 
trance, vice  certainly  would. 

While  riotous  indulgence  enervates  both  the  body  and  the  mind,  purity 
and  virtue  heighten  all  the  powers  of  human  fruition. 

If  the  King  were  present,  Cleon,  there  would  be  no  need  of  my  answer- 
ing to  what  thou  hast  just  proposed. 

He  seems  to  have  made  an  injudicious  choice,  though  he  is  esteemed  a 
sensible  man. 

The  person  he  chanced  to  see,  was,  to  appearance,  an  old,  sordid,  blind 
man  ;  but,  upon  his  following  him  from  place  to  place,  he  at  last 
found,  by  his  own  confession,  that  he  was  Plutus,  the  god  of  riches. 

I  know  not  what  course  others  may  take,  but  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty, 
or  give  me  death. 

Let  any  one  resolve  always  to  do  right  now,  leaving  then  to  do  as  it  can, 
and  if  he  were  to  live  to  the  age  of  Methuselah,  he  would  never  do 
wrong ;  but  the  common  error  is  to  resolve  to  act  right  after  break- 
fast, or  after  dinner,  or  to-morrow  morning,  or  next  time  ;  but  now, 
just  now,  this  once,  we  must  go  on  the  same  as  ever. 

It  seems  easier  to  do  right  to-morrow  than  to-day,  merely  because  we 
forget,  that  when  to-morrow  comes,  then  will  be  now. 
The  lamb  thy  riot  dooms  to  bleed  to-day, 
Had  he  thy  reason,  would  he  skip  and  play  ? 


ANALYSIS,    PARSING,   AND  CONSTEUOTION.       239 

Inspiring  thought  of  rapture  yet  to  be ! 
The  tears  of  love  were  hopeless  but  for  thee ! 
If  in  that  frame  no  deathless  spirit  dwell, 
If  that  faint  murmur  be  the  last  farewell, 
If  fate  unite  the  faithful  but  to  part, 
Why  is  their  memory  sacred  to  the  heart  ? 

XVII.— Miscellaneous  Sentences. 

EXAMPLES  ANALYZED. 

1.  "Rasselas  could  not  catch  the  fugitives,  with  his  utmost  efforts ; 
but,  resolving  to  weary  by  perseverance  him  whom  he  could  not  sur- 
pass in  speed,  he  pressed  on  till  the  foot  of  the  mountain  stopped  his 
course. " — Johnson. 

ANALYSIS.— Compound  declarative  sentence : 

1.  Rasselas  could  not  catch  the  fugitive  with  his  utmost  efforts  ; 
A.  Resolving  to  weary course.    Connective,  but. 

1.  Simple  declarative  clause. 

S.  Rasselas;  P.  could  catch;  O.  fugitive. 

Ad.  P.  not,  with  his  utmost  efforts  (a)  ;  Ad.  O.  tfi*. 

a.  Simple  adverbial  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  efforts ;  Ad.  his  and  utmost. 
A.  Compound  declarative  member. 
S.  He;  P. pressed. 

Ad.  S.  resolving  to  weary  by  perseverance  him speed  (b) ; 

Ad.  P.  on,  and  till  the  foot  of  the  mountain  stopped  his  course  (2). 

b.  Complex  adjective  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  resolving ;  Ad.  to  weary speed  (c). 

c.  Complex  objective  phrase. 

Prin.  parf,  to  weary ;  Ad.  him  (obj.)  and  by  perseverance ;  Ad.  of  him,  whom 

speed  (3). 

8.  Simple  adjective  clause. 

S.  He ;  P.  could  surpass ;  O.  whom ;  Ad.  P.  not  and  in  speed. 

2.  Simple  adverbial  clause. 

S.  foot ;  P.  stopped ;  O.  course. 

Ad.  S.  the,  of  the  mountain  ;  Ad.  P.  till;  Ad.  O.  his;  Connective,  tilt. 

2.  "  There  is  strong  reason  to  suspect  that  some  able  Whig  politi- 
cians, who  thought  it  dangerous  to  relax,  at  that  moment,  the  laws  against 
political  offenses,  but  who  could  not,  without  incurring  the  charge  of 
inconsistency,  declare  themselves  adverse  to  relaxation,  had  conceived  a 
hope  that  they  might,  by  fomenting  the  dispute  about  the  court  of  the 
lord  high  steward,  defer  for  at  least  a  year  the  passing  of  a  bill  which 
they  disliked,  and  yet  could  not  decently  oppose." — Macaulay. 

ANALYSIS.— Complex  declarative  sentence. 
S.  Reason ;  P.  is. 

Ad.  S.  strong,  to  suspect oppose  ;  (a)  Ad.  P.  there. 

a.  Complex  adjective  phrase. 

rtin.  part,  to  suspect  ,•  Ad.  (object),  Some  able oppose ;  (A)  Con.  ifcft 


240  SYNTAX. 

A.  Complex,  object  clause. 

S.  Politicians ;  P.  had  conceived ;  0.  hope. 

Ad.  S.  Some,  able  WTiig,  and  the  two  co-ordinate  clauses,  connected  by  but, 

Who  thought offenses  (B),  Who  could  relaxation  (C) ;  Ad.  O. 

They  might oppose  (D).    Con.  that. 

B.  Complex  adjective  clause. 

S.  who  ;  P.  thought ;  O.  It  (to  be)  dangerous offenses  (1). 

1.  Simple  object  clause,  of  the  infinitive  form. 

S.  It ;  P.  to  be  (understood) ;  Att.  dangerous. 
Ad.  S.  to  relax offenses  (b). 

b.  Complex  explanatory  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  to  relax ;  Ad.  (primary),  at  that  moment,  (c)  and  laws ;  (Second- 
ary), the,  and  againtt  political  offenses  (d). 

c.  Simple  adverbial  phrase. 

d.  Simple  adjective  phrase,  modifying  laws. 

C.  Complex  adjective  clause. 

S.  who  ;  P.  could  declare ;  O.  themselves  (to  be)  adverse  to  relaxation  (2). 
Ad.  P.  not,  without  incurring  the  charge  of  inconsistency  (e). 
«.  Complex  adverbial  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  incurring  ;  Ad.  (primary),  charge;  (secondary),  the,  and  of  incon- 
sistency. 

2.  Simple  object  clause,  infinitive  form, 

S.  themselves  ;  P.  to  be  (und).;  Att.  adverse  ;  Ad.  Att.  to  relaxation. 

D.  Complex  adjective  clause. 

S.  they  ;  P.  might  defer ;  0.  passing. 

Ad.  P.  by  fomenting steward  (t),for  at  least  a  year  (g)  ; 

Ad.  O.  the,  and  of  a  bill  which oppose  (h). 

f.  Complex  adverbial  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  fomenting ;  Ad.  (primary),  dispute,  (secondary),  the,  and  about 

steioard  (\). 

i.  Complex  adjective  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  court ;  Ad.  the,  and  of  the  lord  high  steward  (k). 
k.  Simple  adjective  phrase. 

g.  Simple  adverbial  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  year ;  Ad.  o.    At  least,  independent  phrase. 
h.  Complex  adjective  phrase. 

Prin.  part,  bill;  Ad.  a,  and  which oppose  (3). 

8.  Simple  adjective  clause,  with  a  compound  predicate. 

S.  they ;  P.  (compound),  disliked,  and  could  oppose ;  Con.  and  ;  O.  which. 

Ad.  P.  (second),  not  and  decently. 

3.  What  wonder,  when 

Millions  of  fierce  encountering  Angels  fought 
On  either  side,  the  least  of  whom  could  wield 
These  elements,  and  arm  him  with  the  force 
Of  all  their  regions  ?     How  much  more  of  pow'r 
Army  'gainst  army  numberless,  to  raise 
Dreadful  combustion  warring,  and  disturb, 
Though  not  destroy,  their  happy  native  seat ; 
Had  not  th'  Eternal  King  omnipotent 
From  his  strong  hold  of  Heav'n  high  over-ruled 


ANALYSIS,    PARSING,    AND   CONSTRUCTION.        241 

And  limited  their  might ;  though  number'd  such 
As  each  divided  legion  might  have  seem'd 
A  num'rous  lost,  in  strength  each  armed  band 
A  legion,  led  in  fight,  yet  leader  seem'd 
Each  warrior  single  as  in  chief,  expert 
When  to  advance,  or  stand,  or  turn  the  sway 
Of  battle,  open  when,  and  when  to  close 
The  ridges  of  grim  war. — Paradise  Lost,  VI.,  219. 

ANALYSIS.— The  first  period  which  terminates  at  regions,  is  a  compound  interrogative 
sentence. 

1.  What  wonder  (should  there  be)  ?    A.  When regions ;  Con.  when  (used 

as  a  conjunction). 
1.  Simple  interrogative  clause. 

A.  Compound  declarative  member. 

2.  When  millions side  ;  3.  The  least regions ;  Con.  whom. 

The  second  period,  comprising  the  remainder  of  the  passage,  is  a  compound  exclama- 
tory sentence.  #' 

1.  How seat ;  A.  Had grim  war ;  Con.  i<f  (understood). 

1.  Simple  exclamatory  clause. 

5.  army ;  P.  would  have  wielded  (understood)  ;  O.  power. 

Ad.  S.  numberless,  and  warring  against  (numberless)  army ;  Ad.  0.  to  raise 
dreadful  combustion,  and  disturb,  though  not  destroy  their  happy  native 
seat. 
JL.  Compound  member. 

2.  Had might ;  B.  Though war  ;  Con.  though. 

2.  Simple  clause,  with  a  compound  predicate. 

B.  Compound  declarative  member. 

3.  (They  were)  number'd  such; 

C.  Each  divided  legion war ;  Con.  as  (for  that). 

3.  Simple  declarative  clause. 

C.  Compound  declarative  member. 

4.  Each  divided  legion host ; 

6.  In  strength legion ; 

D.  Led  in  fight war.    No  connective. 

4.  5.  Simple  declarative  clauses. 

D.  Compound  declarative  member. 

6.  Each  single  warrior  seemed  as  a  leader  in  chief,  expert war  ; 

7.  (He  was)  led  in  fight.     Connectives  (corresponsive),  though  and  yet. 
6.  Simple  declarative  member. 

5.  Warrior ;  P.  seemed ;  Att  leader  (connected  to  the  subject  by  as). 

Ad.  S.  each,  single ;  Ad.  Att.  a,  in  chief,  and  expert ;  Ad.  of  expert,  When  to 

advance war  (a) 

a.  Compound  adverbial  phrase. 

b.  When  to  advance ;  c.  when  to  stand ;  d.  when  to  turn  the  sway  of  battle ; 

e.  when  to  open  and  when  to  close  the  ridges  of  grim  war. 

Let  the  pupil  be  required  to  analyze  and  parse  oraUy,  according  to  the 

Praxis,  the  sentences  in  the  following  paragraphs,  or  to  prepare  a 

written  analysis  of  each,  according  to  the  method,  indicated  in  the 

above  examples. 

1.  Let  the  ambitious,  whether  soldiers,  tribunes,  or  kings,  reflect, 

that,  if  there  are  mercenary  soldiers  to  serve  them,  and  flatterers  to 


242  SYNTAX. 

excuse  them  while  they  reign,  there  is  the  conscience  of  humanity 
afterward  to  judge  them,  and  pity  to  detest  them. — Lamartine. 

2.  Some,  in  their  discourse,  desire  rather  commendation  of  wit,  in 
being  able  to  hold  all  arguments,  than  of  judgment  in  discerning  what 
is  true  ;  as  if  it  were  a  praise  to  know  what  might  be  said,  and  not  what 
should  be  thought. — Bacon. 

3.  If  all  the  means  of  education  which  are  scattered  over  the  world, 
and  if  all  the  philosophers  and  teachers  of  ancient  and  modern  times, 
were  to  be  collected  together,  and  made  to  bring  their  combined  efforts 
to  bear  upon  an  individual,  all  they  could  do  would  be  to  afford  the 
opportunity  of  improvement. — Degerando. 

4.  Dreams  are  the  bright  creatures  of  poem  and  legend,  who  sport  on 
earth  in  the  night-season,  and  melt  away  in  the  first  beams  of  the  sun, 
which  lights  grim  Care  and  stern  Reality  in   their  daily  pilgrimage 
through  the  world. — Dickens. 

5.  Montaigne  saith  prettily,  when  he  inquired  the  reason  why  the 
word  of  the  lie  should  be  such  a  disgrace  and  such  an  odious  charge. 
Saith  he,  "If  it  be  well  weighed,  to  say  that  a  man  lieth,  is  as  much 
to  say,  as  that  he  is  brave  toward  God,  and  a  coward  toward  men." 
— Bacon. 

6.  Dear  sensibility  !  source  inexhausted  of  all  that  is  precious  in  our 
joys,  or  costly  in  our  sorrows,  thou  chainest  thy  martyr  down  upon  his 
bed  of  straw,  and  'tis  thou  who  lift'st  him  up  to  heaven !     Eternal 
fountain  of  our  feeling  !  'tis  here  I  trace  thee,  and  this  is  thy  ' '  divinity 
which  stirs  within  me  ;  "  not  that,  in  some  sad  and  sickening  moments, 
<(  my  soul  shrinks  back  upon  herself,  and  startles  at  destruction  !  "  (mere 
pomp  of  words  !)  but  that  I  feel  some  generous  cares  beyond  myself.    All 
comes  from  thee,  great — great  Sensorium  of  the  world  !  which  vibrates, 
if  a  hair  of  our  heads  but  falls  to  the  ground,  in  the  remotest  desert  of 
thy  creation. — Sterne. 

7.  On  the  fourth  day  of  creation,  when  the  sun,  after  a  glorious  bnt 
solitary  course,  went  down  in  the  evening,  and  darkness  began  to  gather 
over  the  face  of  the  uninhabited  globe,  already  arrayed  in  the  exuber- 
ance of  vegetation,  and  prepared  by  the  diversity  of  land  and  water,  for 
the  abode  of  uncreated  animals  and  man,— a  star,  single  and  beautiful, 
stepped  forth  into  the  firmament.     Trembling  with  wonder  and  delight 
in  new-found  existence,   she  looked  abroad,  and  beheld  nothing,  in 
heaven  or  on  earth,  resembling  herself.     But  she  was  not  long  alone  ; 
now  one,  then  another,  here  a  third,  there  a  fourth  resplendent  com- 
panion had  joined  her,  till,  light  after  light  stealing  though  the  gloom, 
in  the  lapse  of  an  hour,  the  whole  hemisphere  WHS  brilliantly  bespangled 


ANALYSIS,  PARSING,   AND   CONSTRUCTION.        243 

8.  To  learn  A,  B,  C,  is  felt  to  be  extremely  irksome  by  the  infant, 
who  cannot  comprehend  what  it  is  for.     The  boy,  forced  to  school,  cons 
over  his  dull  lesson  because  he  must,  but  feels  no  amusement  or  satis- 
faction in  it.     The  labor  he  is  obliged  to  undergo  is  not  small ;  the  pri- 
vations of  pleasure  and  activity,  he  regrets  still  more  ;  and  all  for  what  ? 
To  learn  what  he  does  not  like  ;  to  force  into  his  mind  words  to  which 
he  attaches  no  ideas,  or  ideas  which  appear  to  him  to  be  of  no  value ; 
[because]  he  cannot  put  them  to  any  proper  use.     Youth  is  not  aware, 
that  not  for  present  use  is  all  this  designed.     The  dull,  laborious,  but 
necessary  routine,  like  plowing  and  sowing  the  land,  is  in  hopes  of  reap- 
ing abundance,  at  some  not  very  distant  season.     Education  is  not  the 
end,  but  only  the  means. — Taylor. 

9.  The  voice  of  the  world  had  whispered  to  Columbus  that  the  world 
is  one  ;  and  as  he  went  forth  toward  the  west,  ploughing  a  wave  which 
no  European  keej.  had  entered,  it  was  his  high  purpose  not  merely  to 
open  new  paths  to  islands  or  to  continents,  but  to  bring  together  the 
ends  of  the  earth,  and  join  all  nations  in  commerce  and  spiritual  life. 
— Bancroft. 

10.  To  a  limited  apprehension,  it  would  seem  as  if  the  greater  part  of 
the  existence  here  allotted  us,  were  little  more  than  an  apprenticeship 
to  the  business  of  living ;  and  that,  if  ever  we  come  to  understand  our 
authentic  position  and  relations  in  the  world,  and  how  our  time  and 
talents  might  have  been  wisely  and  most  effectually  employed,  it  is  at  a 
stage  of  life,  when  the  journey  is  drawing  to  a  close,  and  hardly  an  op- 
portunity is  left  us  to  turn  what  we  have  been  learning  to  account. 
— R.  Chambers. 

11.  We  never,  in  a  moral  way,  applaud  or  blame  either  ourselves  or 
others  for  what  we  enjoy  or  what  we  suffer  ;  or  for  having  impressions 
made  upon  us  which  we  consider  as  being  altogether  out  of  our  power : 
but  only  for  what  we  do,  or  would  have  done  had  it  been  in  our  power ; 
or  for  what  we  leave  undone  which  we  might  have  done,  or  would  have 
left  undone  though  we  could  have  done  it.  — Bp.  Butler. 

12.  Resisting  or  not,  however,  we  are  doomed  to  suffer  a  bitter  pang 
as  often  as  the  irrecoverable  flight  of  our  time  is  brought  home  with 
keenness  to  our  hearts.     The  spectacle  of  a  lady  floating  over  the  sea  in 
a  boat,  and  waking  suddenly  from  sleep  to  find  her  magnificent  ropes  of 
pearl  necklace,  by  some  accident  detached  at  one  end  from  its  fasten- 
ings, the  loose  string  hanging  down  into  the  water,  and  pearl  after  pearl 
slipping  off  forever  into  the  abyss,  brings  before  us  the  sadness  of  the 
case. — De  Quincey. 

13.  Glowing  with  a  vivid  conception  of  these  truths,  so  wonderful  and 
so  indisputable,  let  me  ask,  whether,  among  all  the  spectacles  which 
earth  presents,  and  which  angels  might  look  down,  upon  with  an  ecstasy 


244  SYNTAX. 

too  deep  for  utterance,  is  there  one  fairer  and  more  enrapturing  to  the 
sight  than  that  of  a  young  man,  just  fresh  from  the  Creator's  hands,  and 
with  the  unspent  energies  of  the  coming  eternity  wrapped  up  in  his 
oosom,  surveying  and  recounting,  in  the  solitude  of  his  closet,  or  in  the 
darkness  of  midnight,  the  mighty  gifts  with  which  he  has  been  endowed, 
and  the  magnificent  career  of  usefulness  and  of  blessedness,  which  has 
been  opened  before  him  ;  and  resolving,  with  one  all-concentrating  and 
all-hallowing  vow,  that  he  will  live,  true  to  the  noblest  capacities  of  his 
being,  and  in  obedience  to  the  highest  law  of  his  nature ! — Horace  Mann. 

14.  Could  every  man  apply  himself  to  [the]  employments  which  are 
most  suited  to  his  capabilities,  and,  in  his  appointed  calling,  work  only 
with  a  view  to  serviceable,  sincere,  and  ennobling  results,  the  measure 
of  his  achievements  might  still,  perchance,  fall  short  of  his  original 
aspirations  ;  but,  being  commensurate  with  his  powers,  and  conformable 
to  the  eternal  laws,  it  could  not  fail  to  yield  him  that  assurance  of 
security  and  contentment  which,  by  necessity,  proceeds  from  all  faith- 
fulness of  action. — Chambers. 

15.  Where  American  liberty  raised  its  first  voice,  and  where  its  youth 
was  nurtured  and  sustained,  there  it  still  lives,  in  the  strength  of  its 
manhood,  and  full  of  its  original  spirit.     If  discord  and  disunion  shall 
wound  it ;  if  party  strife  and  blind  ambition  shall  hawk  at  and  tear  it ; 
if  folly  and  madness,  if  uneasiness  under  salutary  restraint,  shall  suc- 
ceed to  separate  it  from  that  Union,  by  which  alone  its  existence  is  made 
sure,  it  will  stand,  in  the  end,  by  the  side  of  that  cradle  in  which  its 
infancy  was  rocked  ;   it  will  stretch  forth  its  arm  with  whatever  of 
vigor  it  may  still  retain,  over  the  friends  who  gathered  around  it ;  and 
it  will  fall  at  last,  if  fall  it  must,  amid  the  proudest  monuments  of  its 
glory,  and  on  the  very  spot  of  its  origin. —  Webster. 

16.  So  live,  that  when  thy  summons  comes  to  join 
The  innumerable  caravan,  that  moves 

To  the  pale  realms  of  shade,  where  each  shall  take 

His  chamber  in  the  silent  halls  of  death, 

Thou  go  not  like  the  quarry-slave  at  night, 

Scourged  to  his  dungeon,  but,  sustained  and  soothed 

By  an  unfaltering  trust,  approach  thy  grave, 

Like  one  who  wraps  the  drapery  of  his  couch 

About  him,  and  lies  down  to  pleasant  dreams. — Bryant. 

17.  Of  chance  or  change,  O  let  not  man  complain, 
Else  shall  he  never,  never  cease  to  wail ; 

For,  from  the  imperial  dome,  to  where  the  swain 
Rears  the  lone  cottage  in  the  silent  dale, 
All  ieel  th'  assaults  of  Fortune's  fickle  gale  i 


I 

ANALYSIS,    PARSING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION.        245 

Art,  empire,  Earth  itself,  to  change  are  doom'd ; 
Earthquakes  have  raised  to  heaven  the  humble  vale. 
And  gulfs  the  mountain's  mighty  mass  entomb'd  ; 
And  where  th'  Atlantic  rolls,  wide  continents  have  bloom'd. 

— Beattie. 

18.  The  One  remains,  the  many  change  and  pass ; 
Heaven's  light  forever  shines,  Earth's  shadows  fly ; 
Life,  like  a  dome  of  many-colored  glass, 

Stains  the  white  radiance  of  eternity, 

Until  Death  tramples  it  to  fragments. — Die, 

If  thou  wouldst  be  with  that  which  thou  dost  seek  ! 

Follow  where  all  is  fled  !  — Rome's  azure  sky, 

Flowers,  ruins,  statues,  music, — words  are  weak 

The  glory  they  transfuse,  with  fitting  truth  to  speak. — Shdky. 

19.  The  honey-b£e,  that  wanders  all  day  long 

The  field,  the  woodland,  and  the  garden  o'er, 

To  gather  in  his  fragrant  winter  store, 
Humming  in  calm  content  his  quiet  song, 
Seeks  not  alone  the  rose's  glowing  breast, 

The  lily's  dainty  cup,  the  violet's  lips ; 

But  from  all  rank  and  noisome  weeds  he  sips 
The  single  drop  of  sweetness  ever  pressed 
Within  the  poisoned  chalice.     Thus,  if  we 

Seek  only  to  draw  forth  the  hidden  sweet 

In  all  the  varied  human  flowers  we  meet 
In  the  wide  garden  of  humanity, 
And,  like  the  bee,  if  home  the  spoil  we  bear, 
Hived  in  our  hearts,  it  turns  to  nectar  there. — A.  G.  Isynch. 

20.  And  Ardennes  waves  above  them  her  green  leaves, 
Dewy  with  Nature's  tear-drops,  as  they  pass, 
Grieving,  if  aught  inanimate  ere  grieves, 

Over  the  unreturning  brave,— alas  ! 

Ere  evening  to  be  trodden  like  the  grass, 

Which  now  beneath  them,  but  above  shall  grow 

In  its  next  verdure,  when  the  fiery  mass 

Of  living  valor,  rolling  on  the  foe, 

And  burning  with  high  hope,  shall  molder  cold  and  low. — Byron, 

21.  Heaven  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate, 
All  but  the  page  prescribed,  their  present  state ; 
From  brutes  what  men,  from  men  what  spirits  know  ; 
6r  who  could  suffer  being  here  below  ? 

The  lamb  thy  riot  dooms  to  bleed  to-day, 


246  SYNTAX. 

Had  he  thy  reason,  would  he  skip  and  play  ? 
Pleas'd  to  the  last,  he  crops  the  flowery  food, 
And  licks  the  hand  just  rais'd  to  shed  his  blood. 
Oh  blindness  to  the  future  !  kindly  given 
That  each  may  fill  the  circle  mark'd  by  Heaven, 
Who  sees  with  equal  eye,  as  God  of  all, 
A  hero  perish,  or  a  sparrow  fall, 
Atoms  or  systems  into  ruin  hurled, 
And  now  a  bubble  burst,  and  now  a  world. — Pope. 

22.  As  thus  the  snows  arise  ;  and,  foul  and  fierce, 
All  Winter  drives  along  the  darkened  air ; 

In  his  own  loose-revolving  fields,  the  swain 

Disaster'd  stands  ;  sees  other  hills  ascend, 

Of  unknown  joyless  brow ;  and  other  scenes, 

Of  horrid  prospect,  shag  the  trackless  plain  ; 

Nor  finds  the  river,  nor  the  forest,  hid 

Beneath  the  formless  wild  ;  but  wanders  on 

From  hill  to  dale,  still  more  and  more  astray ; 

Impatient  flouncing  through  the  drifted  heaps, 

Stung  with  the  thoughts  of  home  ;  the  thoughts  of  home 

Rush  on  his  nerves,  and  call  their  vigor  forth 

In  many  a  vain  attempt. — Thomson. 

23.  O  treacherous  conscience !  while  she  seems  to  sleep 
On  rose  and  myrtle,  lull'd  with  syren  song ; 
While  she  seems,  nodding  o'er  her  charge,  to  drop 
On  headlong  appetite  the  slacken'd  rein, 

And  give  us  up  to  license,  unrecall'd, 
Unmark'd  ; — see,  from  behind  her  secret  stand, 
The  sly  informer  minutes  every  fault, 
And  her  dread  diary  with  horror  fills. 
Not  the  gross  act  alone  employs  her  pen : 
She  reconnoiters  fancy's  airy  band, 
A  watchful  foe  !  the  formidable  spy, 
Listening,  o'erhears  the  whispers  of  our  camp ; 
Our  dawning  purposes  of  heart  explores, 
And  steals  our  embryos  of  iniquity. — Young. 

24.  Look,  as  I  blow  this  feather  from  my  face, 
And  as  the  air  blows  it  to  me  again, 
Obeying  with  my  wind  when  I  do  blow, 
And  yielding  to  another  when  it  blows, 
Commanded  always  by  the  greater  gust ; 
Such  is  the  lightness  of  you  common  men, — 


ANALYSIS,    PARSING,    AND   CONSTRUCTION.       247 

25.  Nature  never  did  betray 

The  heart  that  loved  her  ;  'tis  her  privilege 
Through  all  the  years  of  this  our  life,  to  lead. 
From  joy  to  joy  ;  for  she  can  so  inform 
The  mind  that  is  within  us,  so  impress 
With  quietness  and  beauty,  and  so  feed 
With  lofty  thoughts,  that  neither  evil  tongues, 
Rash  judgments,  nor  the  sneers  of  selfish  men 
Shall  e'er  prevail  against  us,  or  distrust 
Our  cheerful  faith  that  all  which  we  behold 
Is  full  of  blessings. —  Wordsworth. 

26.  O,  Adam,  one  Almighty  is,  from  whom 
All  things  proceed,  and  up  to  him  return, 
If  not  depraved  from  good,  created  all 
Such  to  perfection,  one  first  matter  all, 
Endued  with  various  forms,  various  degrees 
Of  substance,  and  in  things  that  live,  of  life ; 
But  more  refined,  more  spirituous,  and  pure, 
As  nearer  to  him  placed,  or  nearer  tending, 
Each  in  their  sev'ral  active  spheres  assign'd, 
Till  body  up  to  spirit  work,  in  bounds 
Proportioned  to  each  kind. — Milton. 

Exercise  XVIII. 

SENTENCES  OP  PECULIAR  OK  IRREGULAR  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  examples  here  given,  with  the  subjoined  references  and  annotations, 
are  designed  to  illustrate,  and  exercise  the  pupil  in,  the  various 
Observations,  Exceptions,  and  Notes  under  the  Sections  upon  Analy- 
sis, and  the  Rules  of  Syntax.  The  Praxis  is  the  same  as  in  the 
preceding  Syntactical  Exercises. 

I.— PROSE. 

The  philosopher,  the  saint,  or  the  hero — the  wise,  the  good,  or  the 
great  man — very  often  lies  hid  and  concealed  in  a  plebeian,  which  a  a 
proper  education  might  have  disinterred  and  brought  to  light. — Addison. 

Knowest  thou  not  this  of  old,  since  man  was  placed  upon  the  earth, 
that  the  triumphing  of  the  wicked  is  short,  and  the  joy  of  the  hypocrite 
but*  for  a  moment. — Job  xx.,  4,  5. 


»  Note  V.,  Rule  XIV. 
*0bs.  4,  Rule  III. 


248  SYNTAX. 

Wherefore  ye  needs c  must  be  subject,  not  only  for  wrath,  but  also  for 
conscience* d  sake. — Roin.  xiii.,  5. 

For  now  I  see  through  a  glass  darkly  ;  but  then,  face  to  face*  :  now 
I  know  in  part;  but  then  shall  I  know  even  as  also  I  am  known. — 1 
Cor.  xiii.,  12. 

Ye  have  heard  that  it  hath  been  said,  "  An  eye  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth 
for  a  tooth."*— Matt,  v.,  37. 

Every  man  should  let  his  man-servant,  and  every  man  his  maid- 
servant, being  a  Hebrew  or  an  Hebrewess,  go  free ;  that  none  should 
serve  himself  of  them,  to  wit,  %  of  a  Jew  his  brother.  — Jer.  xxxiv. ,  9. 

The  beautiful  forest  in  which  we  were  encamped,  abounded  in  bee- 
trees;  that  is  to  say^1  trees  in  the  decayed  trunks  of  which,  wild  bees 
had  established  their  hives. — Irving. 

And  this  is  the  record  of  John,  when  the  Jews  sent  priests  and  Levitea 
from  Jerusalem  to  ask  him,1  "  Who  art  thou  ?  "  And  he  confessed,  and 
denied  not,  but  confessed,  "I  am  not  the  Christ."  And  they  asked 
him,  "What  then?  Art  thou  Elias?"  and  he  saith,  "I  am  not.'* 
"  Art  thou  that  prophet  ?  "  and  he  answered,  "  No."*— John  i.,  19. 

The  rudiments  of  every  language,  therefore,  must  be  given  as1  a 
task,  not  as  an  amusement.  —  Goldsmith. 

Time  we  ought  to  consider  as l  a  sacred  trust  committed  to  us  by  God, 
of  which  we  are  now  the  depositories,  and  [of  which]  we  are  to  render 
an  account  at  the  last.™ — Blair. 

True  generosity  is  a  duty  as  indispensably  necessary  as  thosen  imposed 
upon  us  by  law. — Goldsmith. 

To  teach  men  to  be  orators,  is  little  less  than  to  teach  them  to  be 
poets." — Id. 

Lysippus  is  told  that  his  banker  asks  a  debt  of  forty  pounds ,°  and  that 
a  distressed  acquaintance  petitions  for  the  same  sum.  He  gives  it, 
without  hesitating,  to  the  latter ;  for  he  demands  as  a  favor  what  the 
former  requires  as  a  debt. — Id. 

The  laws  of  Eastern  hospitality  allowed  them  to  enter,  and  the  master 


«  Impersonal  verb,  used  here  as  an  adverb,  equivalent  to  necessarily. 

a  Obs.  5,  Rule  XVIII. 

«  Adverbial  phrase,  idiomatic ;  or  independent  phrase,  absolute.    See  page  117. 

f  Explanatory  clause,  predicate  being  understood.     Obs.  4,  Rule  XXTV*. 

I  An  infinitive,  equivalent  to  namely.     Obs.  3,  Defective  Verbs,  page  104. 

*A  clause  used  as  a  conjunction,  connecting  appoeitioflal  terms. 

» Obe.  3,  Rule  XIX. 

•  Exception  1,  Rule  III. 
I  Obe.  3,  Rule  XXV. 

•  Infinitive  phrase,  used  as  an  adjective  attribute. 
»  Subject  of  are  understood.     Ob3.  4,  Rule  XXV. 

•  Clause  adjunct  of  the  predicate  verb  is  told.    Obs.  8,  Rule  XIX, 


ANALYSIS,    PARSING,    AND  CONSTRUCTION.       249 

welcomed  them,  like?  a  man  liberal  and  wealthy.  He  was  skillful 
enough  in  appearances  soon  to  discern^  that  they  were  no  common 
guests,  and  spread  his  table  with  magnificence. — Dr.  Johnson. 

The  year  before,  he  had  so  used  the  matter,  that,  what*  by  iorce, 
what  by  policy,  he  had  taken  from  the  Christians  above  thirty  small 
castles. — KnoUes. 

We  exhorted  them  to  trust  in  God,*  and  to  love  one  an  other.1 — 
J.  Campbell. 

With  all  due  respect  for  the  calculations  of  men  of  science,  /  cannot 
but  remember u  that  when  most  confident,  they  have  sometimes  erred. 

I  could  not  do  a  better  thing  than  to  commend v  this  habit  to  my 
brethren  as  one  closely  connected  with  their  own  personal  piety,  and 
their  usefulness  in  the  world.—  A.  Barnes. 

It  is  a  good  practical  rule  to  keep  one's  reading  well  proportioned"7  in 
the  two  great  divisions,  prose  and  poetry. — H.  Reid. 

For  a  prince  to  be  reduced  by  villainy  to  my  distressful  circumstances^ 
is  calamity  enough. — Sallust. 

Who  knows  but  y  that  God,  who  made  the  world,  may  cause  that  giant 
Despair  may  die  ? — Bunyan. 

What  can  be  more  strange  than,  that  an  ounce  weight  should  balance 
hundreds  of  pounds,  by  the  intervention  of  a  few  bars  of  thin  iron  ? z 

Thid  lovely  land,  this  glorious  liberty,  these  benign  institutions,  the 
dear  purchase  of  our  fathers,  are  ours ;  ours  to  enjoy,  ours  to  preserve, 
ours  to  transmit. a —  Webster. 

The  knowledge  of  why  they  so  exist ^  must  be  the  last  act  of  favor 
which  time  and  toil  will  bestow. — Rush. 

To  do  what  is  right,  with  unperverted  faculties,  is  ten  times c  easier 
than  to  undo  what  is  wrong. — Porter. 

P  An  adjective  followed  by  to  understood.     Obs.  4,  Rule  XX. 

<iThe  infinitive  with  its  object  clause  modifies  enough.  Obs.  2,  Rule  XXI.  Subdivi- 
sion, 4. 

*  Obs.  13,  Rule  XIV. 

*  Obs.  2,  Rule  XIX. 

*  Obs.  9,  Rule  VII. 

«  Remember,  an  infinitive  used  as  the  object  of  the  preposition  but.  Obs.  3,  Rule  XXI. 
Can  is  auxiliary  to  do,  understood. 

*  To  commend,  with  its  adjuncts  is  subject  to  a  verb  understood.     Obs.  4,  Rule  XXV. 
» Indirect  attribute.    Obs.  6,  Rule  XIII. 

'Subject  phrase,  containing  an  infinitive  object  clause,  used  as  the  object  of  for 
(Exc.  2,  Rule  V.).  The  structure  is  anomalous,  equivalent  to,  That  a  prince  should  be 
reduced,  etc. 

r  But  is  here  a  preposition,  governing  the  following  substantive  clause. 

*  The  clause  introduced  by  that  is  the  subject  of  is,  understood.     Obs.  4,  Rule  "ETTT, 
»  Obs.  2,  Rule  XXI. 

*  Clause  used  as  the  object  of  the  preposition  of. 
«  A  prepositional  phrase,  by  being  understood. 


250  SYNTAX. 

And  he  charged  them  that  they  should  teU  no  man  ;  A  but  the  *  more  he> 
charged  them,  so  much  the e  more  a  great  deal f  they  published  it. — 
Mark  vii.,  36. 

For  in  that  he  himself  hath  stiff ered  being  tempted^  he  is  able  to  suc- 
cor them  that  are  tempted.—  Hebrews  xi.,  18. 

It  is  not  to  inflate  national  vanity,  nor  to  swell  a  light  and  empty 
feeling  of  self-importance ;  but  it  is,  that  we  may  judge  justly  of  our 
situation  and  of  our  duties^  that  I  earnestly  urge  this  consideration  of 
our  position  and  our  character  among  the  nations  of  the  earth.1 —  Webster. 

I  had  rather  believe  all  the  fables  in  the  Legend,  and  the  Talmud, 
and  the  Alcoran,  than  that  this  universal  frame  is  without  a  mind.* — 
Bacon. 

II.— POETRY. 

See  the  sole  bliss  Heaven  could  on  all  bestow, 

Which  who  but  feels,*  can  taste,  but  thinks,  can  know; 

Yet,  poor  with  fortune,  and  with  learning  blind, 

The  bad  must  miss,  the  good,  untaught  will  find. — Pops. 

Shame  to  mankind  !  Philander  had  his  foes  ; 

He  felt  the  truths  I  sing,  and  I,  in  him  ; 

But  he,  nor  Ifeeib  more. —  Young. 

So  reads  he  nature,  whom  the  lamp  of  truth 

Illuminates  : — thy  lamp,  mysterious  Word  I 

Which  whoso  sees,  no  longer  wanders  lost, 

With  intellect  bemaz'd  in  endless  doubt, 

But  runs  the  roadc  of  wisdom. — Cowper. 

Yet  O  the  thought,  that  thou  art  safe,*  and  he  ! 

That  thought  is  joy,  arrive  what  may  to  me. — Id. 

The  blessed  to-day e  is  as  completely  so, 

As  who  began  a f  thousand  years  ago.  % — Pope. 

d  Double  object,  man  and  the  following  clause.    Obs.  2,  Rule  XIX. 
'  Exc.  1,  Rule  I. 

•  Deal  governed  by  by,  understood. 

«  Being  tempted  may  relate  to  he  or  be  governed  by  in,  understood, 

i>  Attribute  clause,  commencing  with  that. 

1  Explanatory  clause,  adjunct  of  it. 

k  Object  clause,  believe  being  understood. 

»  Equivalent  to  he  who  only  feels. 

k  Obs.  2,  Rule  XVIL 

•  Obs.  5,  Rule  XIX. 

a  Clause  used  as  an  adjunct  of  thought. 

•  Blessed  to-day  is  used  as  a  noun,  equivalent  to  The  man  who  is  blessed  to-day. 
t  Obs.  8,  Rule  I. 

e  Independent  phrase,  ago  being  used  for  agone,  gone,  or  pawed. 


ANALYSIS,    PARSING ,    AND   CONSTRUCTION.        251 

Full  many  a  gem  h  of  purest  ray  serene 

The  dark  unfathom'd  caves  of  ocean  bear ; 
Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 

And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. — Gray. 
Then  kneeling  down  to  heaven's  eternal  King, 

The  saint,  the  father,  and  the  husband  prays  ; ! 
Hope  "  springs  exulting  on  triumphant  wing," 

That  thus  they  all  shall  meet  in  future  days. — Burns. 

He  can't  flatter,  he  ! 

An  honest  mind  and  plain  ;  he  must  speak  truth ; 
An  k  they  will  hear  it,  so  ;  if  not,  he's  plain. — Shakspeare. 
What  ! }  canst  thou  not  forbear  me  half  an  hour?  m 
Then  get  thee  gone,"  and  dig  my  grave  thyself. — Id. 
If  still  she  loves  thee,  hoard  that  gem ; 
Tis  worth0  thy  vanish'd  diadem.—  Byron. 
He  calls  for  Famine,  and  the  meager  fiend 
Blows  mildew  from  between  his  shrivel' d  lips,? 
And  taints  the  golden  ear. — Cowper. 

Here  he  had  need 

All  circumspection ;  and  we  now,  no  less, 
Choice  in  our  suffrage  ;  for  on  whom  ^  we  send, 
The  weight  of  all,  and  our  last  hope  relies.  — Milton. 
Who  wickedly  is  wise,  or  madly  brave, 
Is  but  ther  more  a  fool,  the  more  a  knave. — Pope. 
O  God  !  methinks s  it  were  a  happy  life 
To  be  no  better  than  a  homely  swain  I 
To  sit  upon  a  hill,  as  I  do  now, 
To  carve  out  dials  quaintly,  point  by  point, 
Thereby  to  see  the  minutes  how  they  run. — Shakspeare. 
Poor  guiltless  I !  and  can  I  choose  but  smile,* 
When  every  coxcomb  knows  me  by  my  style. — Pope. 

*  Obs.  3,  Note  II.,  Rule  II. 
i  Exc.  1,  Rule  X. 

kObs.  9,  Rule  I. 

1  Obs.  14,  Rule  XIV. 

a  Obs.  3,  Rule  XX. 

»  Indirect  attribute.    Obs.  6,  Rule  XIII. 

«  Obs.  5,  Rule  XX. 

P  Obs.  6,  Rule  V. 

9  Whom  equivalent  to  him  whom. 

*  Exc.  1,  Rule  I. 

*  Defective  Verbs,  Obs.  1,  page  103. 

t  Infinitive,  object  to  preposition  but.    Obs.  S,  Rule  XXL 


252  SYNTAX. 

Me  n  miserable  !  which  way  shall  I  fly 

Infinite  wrath,  and  infinite  despair  ? — Milton. 

Ay,  but  to  die,v  and  go  we  know  not  where  ; 

To  lie  in  cold  obstruction  and  to  rot ; 

This  sensible  warm  motion  to  become 

A  kneaded  clod ; — 'tis  too  horrible. — Shakspeare. 

My  soul,  turn  from  them — turn  we  w  to  survey 

Where  roughest  climes  a  nobler  race  display. — Goldsmith. 

Cursed  be  I w  that  did  so !     All  the  charms 

Of  Sycorax,  toads,  beetles,  bats,  tight*  on  you  ! — Shakspeare. 

Then  thus  my  guide,  in  accent  higher  raised 

Than  I  before  had  heard  him :   "  Capaneus  ! 

Thou  art  more  punish'd,  in  that  this  thy  pride 

Lives  yet  unquencJi'd  y  /  no  torment,  save  thy  rage, 

Were  *  to  thy  fury  pain  proportion'd  full." — Gary's  Dante. 

Yet  a  few  days,*  and  thee, 
The  all-beholding  sun  shall  see  no  more 
In  all  his  course  ;  nor  yet,  in  the  cold  grourfd, 
Where  thy  pale  form  was  laid  with  many  tears, 
Nor  in  the  embrace  of  ocean,  shall  exist 
Thy  image. — Bryant. 


Questions  for  Review. 

I.— DEFINITIONS. 

Of  what  does  Syntax  treat  ? — derivation  of  the  word  ? 

What  is  the  relation  of  words  ?  -the  agreement  of  words  ? — the  government 
of  words  ? — the  arrangement  of  words  ? 

EC.— RULES. 

What  is  the  design  of  the  rules  of  syntax  ? 
How  are  they  classified  ? 

What  are  the  rules  of  Relation  ? — of  Agreement  ? — of  Government  ? 
What  rule  relates  to  the  form  of  the  Infinitive  Mood  ? — to  the  use  of  the  Sub- 
junctive Mood  ? — the  Independent  Case  ? — Conjunctions  ? — Interjections  ? 
What  is  the  object  of  Analysis  and  Synthesis  ? 

«  Exc.,  Bule  XXIV.,  and  Obs.  2,  Rule  XXVI. 
»  Infinitive  independent.    Obs.  3,  Rule  XXI. 

*  Imperative  mood  used  in  the  first  person.    Obs.,  page  85. 

*  Imperative,  third  person,  plural. 

7  Clause  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposition.     Obs.,  page  118. 

*  Subjunctive  mood  used  for  the  potential. 

» Independent  phrase,  days  being  absolute  with  being  or  pausing. 


QUESTIONS   FOR   KEVIEW.  253 

HI.— RELATION. 

What  is  the  rule  in  regard  to  the  relation  of  Articles  ? 

What  are  the  exceptions  ? — the  observations  ? — the  subordinate  rules  ? 

What  is  the  rule  in  regard  to  the  relation  of  Adjectives  ? 

What  are  the  exceptions  ? — the  observations  ? — the  subordinate  rules  ? 

What  is  the  rule  in  regard  to  the  relation  of  Adverbs  ? 

What  are  the  exceptions  ? — the  observations  ? — the  subordinate  rules  ? 

What  is  the  rule  in  regard  to  the  relation  of  Participles  ? 

What  are  the  exceptions  ? — the  observations  ? — the  subordinate  rules  ? 

What  is  the  rule  in  regard  to  the  relation  of  Prepositions  ? 

What  are  the  exceptions  ?— the  observations  ?— the  subordinate  rules  ? 

IV.  —AGREEMENT. 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  Nominative  Case  ? 

What  are  the  observations  ? — the  subordinate  rules  ? 

What  is  the  rul£"for  Apposition  ? 

What  are  the  observations  ? 

What  is  the  rule  in  regard  to  the  agreement  of  a  verb  and  subject  ? 

What  are  the  observations  ? — subordinate  rules  ? 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  verb,  when  the  nominative  is  a  collective  noun  ? 

What  is  the  observation  on  this  rule  ? 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  verb  when  it  has  two  or  more  nominatives  connected 

by  and  ? 

What  are  the  exceptions  ? — the  observations  ? — the  subordinate  rules  ? 
What  is  the  rule  for  the  verb,  when  it  has  two  or  more  singular  nominatives 

connected  by  or  or  nor  ? 

What  are  the  observations  ? — the  subordinate  rules  ? 
What  is  the  rule  for  the  agreement  of  verbs,  when  they  are  connected  by  a 

conjunction  ? 

What  exception  is  there  ? — observation  ? — what  are  the  subordinate  rules  ? 
What  is  the  rule  for  the  agreement  of  subject  and  attribute  ? 
What  are  the  observations  ? — the  subordinate  rules  ? 

What  is  the  rule  in  regard  to  the  agreement  of  a  pronoun  and  its  antecedent  ? 
What  are  the  exceptions  ? — the  observations  ? — the  subordinate  rules  ? 
What  is  the  rule  for  the  collective  antecedent  ? 
What  is  the  rule  for  antecedents  connected  by  and  ? 
What  are  the  observations  ? 

V.  —GOVERNMENT. 
To  what  has  Government  respect  ? 

What  parts  of  speech  may  be  governing  words  ? 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  government  of  the  possessive  case  ? 

What  are  the  observations  ? — the  subordinate  rules  ? 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  object  of  a  verb  ? 

What  are  the  observations  ? — the  subordinate  rules  ? 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  object  of  a  preposition  ? 

What  are  the  observations  ? 


254  SYNTAX. 

What  is  the  rale  for  the  government  of  the  infinitive  ? 
What  are  the  observations  ? 

VL — MISCELLANEOUS  RULES. 

What  K  the  rule  for  the  omission  of  to  before  the  infinitive  ? 
What  are  the  observations? 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  use  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood  ? 
What  three  points  are  involved  in  this  rule  ? 
When  only  is  the  subjunctive  mood  required  ? 
How  is  this  illustrated  ? 
What  is  the  rule  for  the  Independent  Case  ? 

Under  what  four  circumstances  is  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  independent  ?    Illus- 
trate each. 

What  other  observations  on  this  rule  ? 
What  is  the  rule  for  Conjunctions  ? 

What  exceptions  are  there  ? — what  observations  ? — subordinate  rules  ? 
What  is  the  rule  for  Interjections  ?— what  observations  ? 

VLL — ARRANGEMENT. 

Why  is  Arrangement  particularly  important  in  English  ? 

What  is  the  place  of  the  subject  noun  or  pronoun  V — the  object  or  attribute  ? 

What  principle  or  law  controls  the  inversion  of  this  order  ? 

What  illustrations  are  given  ? 

What  are  the  applications  of  this  law  to  the  adjective  ? 

What  rule  is  given  in  regard  to  the  relative  ? 

What  is  the  rule  for  adverbs  and  adverbial  expressions  ? 

How  does  it  apply  to  other  adjuncts  V 

What  General  Rule  is  given  for  construction  ? 


PART    IV. 


PROSODY. 

Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  figures,  and 
versification. 

I.— PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  composition,  by 
points,  or  stops,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  more  clearly 
the  sense  and  relation  of  the  words,  and  of  noting  the 
different  pauses  and  inflections  required  in  reading. 

The  following  are  the  principal  points,  or  marks :  the 
Comma  [,],  the  Semicolon  [;],  the  Colon  [:],  the 
Period  [.],  the  Dash  [  —  ],  the  Eroteme,  or  Note  of  In- 
terrogation [?],  the  Ecphoneme,  or  Note  of  Exclama- 
tion [!].  the  Brackets  [  ],  and  Curves,  or  Marks  of  Par- 
enthesis (  ). 

OBS. — The  pauses  that  are  made  in  the  natural  flow  of  speech,  have, 
in  reality,  no  definite  and  invariable  proportions.  Children  are  often 
told  to  pause  at  a  comma  while  they  might  count  one  ;  at  a  semicolon, 
one,  two ;  at  a  colon,  one,  two,  three ;  at  a  period,  one,  two,  three,  four. 
This  may  be  of  some  use,  as  teaching  them  to  observe  their  stops  that 
they  may  catch  the  sense  ;  but  the  standard  itself  is  variable,  and  so  are 
the  times  which  good  sense  gives  to  the  points.  As  a  final  stop,  the 
period  is  immeasurable.  The  following  general  direction  is  as  good  as 
any  that  can  be  given  :  — 

The  comma  denotes  the  shortest  pause;  the  semi- 
colon, a  pause  double  that  of  the  comma ;  the  colon, 
a  pause  double  that  of  the  semicolon  ;  and  the  period 9 


256  PROSODY. 

or  full  stop,  a  pause  double  that  of  the  colon.  The 
pauses  required  by  the  other  marks  vary  according  to  the 
structure  of  the  sentence,  and  their  place  in  it.  They  may 
be  equal  to  any  of  the  foregoing. 

The  Comma. 

The  comma  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence, which  are  so  nearly  connected  in  sense,  as  to  be 
only  one  degree  removed  from  that  close  connection  which 
admits  no  point. 

RULE  L — SIMPLE  SENTENCES. 

A  simple  sentence  does  not,  in  general,  admit  the  comma ; 
as,  "The  weakest  reasoners  are  the  most  positive." 

Exception.—  When  the  nominative  in  a  long  simple  sentence  is  ac- 
companied by  inseparable  adjuncts,  a  comma  should  be  placed  before 
the  verb ;  as,  "  The  assemblage  of  these  vast  bodies,  is  divided  into 
different  systems." 

RULE  IL — SIMPLE  MEMBERS. 

The  simple  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  whether  suc- 
cessive or  involved,  elliptical  or  complete,  are  generally 
divided  by  the  comma ;  as, 

1.  "He  speaks  eloquently,  and  he  acts  wisely." 

2.  "  The  man,  when  he  saw  this,  departed." 

3.  "It  may,  and  it  often  does  happen." 

4  "That  life  is  long,  which  answers  life's  great  end." 
5.  "  As  thy  days,  so  shall  thy  strength  be. " 

Exception  1.— When  a  relative  immediately  follows  its  antecedent, 
and  is  taken  in  a  restrictive  sense,  the  comma  should  not  be  introduced 
before  it ;  as,  "  The  things  which  are  seen,  are  temporal ;  but  the  things 
which  are  not  seen,  are  eternal." — 2  Cor.  iv.,  18. 

Exception  2. — When  the  simple  members  are  short,  and  closely  con- 
nected by  a  conjunction  or  a  conjunctive  adverb,  the  comma  is 
generally  omitted;  as,  " Infamy  is  worse  tftan  death."— "Let  him  tell 
me  totetter  the  number  <?f  the  stars  be  even  or  odd." 


PUNCTUATION.  257 

RULE  TTT. — MORE  THAN  Two  WORDS. 

When  more  than  two  words  or  terms  are  connected  in  the 
same  construction,  by  conjunctions  expressed  or  understood, 
the  comma  should  be  inserted  after  every  one  of  them  but 
the  last ;  and  if  they  are  nominatives  before  a  verb,  the 
comma  should  follow  the  last  also  ;  as, 

1.  "  Who,  to  the  enraptur'd  heart,  and  ear,  and  eye, 

Teach  beauty,  virtue,  truth,  and  love,  and  melody." 

2.  "  Ah  I  what  avails     ****** 

All  that  art,  fortune,  enterprise,  can  bring, 

If  envy,  scorn,  remorse,  or  pride,  the  bosom  wring?" 

3.  "  Womeif  are  soft,  mild,  pitiful,  and  flexible  ; 

Thou,  stern,  obdurate,  flinty,  rough,  remorseless." 

4.  "  She  plans,  provides,  expatiates,  triumphs  there." 

OBS. — Two  or  more  words  are  in  the  same  construction,  when  they 
have  a  common  dependence  on  some  other  term. 

RULE  IV.— ONLY  Two  WORDS. 

When  only  two  words  or  terms  are  connected  by  a  conjunc- 
tion, they  should  not  be  separated  by  the  comma  ;  as,  "De- 
spair and  anguish  fled  the  struggling  soul." — Goldsmith. 

Exception  1. — When  the  two  words  connected  have  several  adjuncts,  or 
when  one  of  them  has  an  adjunct  that  relates  not  to  both,  the  comma  is 
inserted  ;  as,  "  Honesty  in  his  dealings,  and  attention  to  his  business, 
procured  him  both  esteem  and  wealth." — "•  Who  is  applied  to  persons, 
or  things  personified." 

Exception  2. — When  the  two  words  connected  are  emphatically  dis- 
tinguished, the  comma  is  inserted  ;  as, 

"  Liberal,  not  lavish,  is  kind  Nature's  hand." — Seattle. 
u'Tis  certain  he  could  write,  and  cipher  too." — Goldsmith. 
Exception  3. — When  there  is  merely  an  alternative  of  words,  the 
comma  is  inserted  ;  as,  **  We  saw  a  large  opening,  or  inlet." 

Exception  4. — When  the  conjunction  is  understood,  the  comma  is  in- 
serted ;  as, 

"  She  thought  the  isle  that  gave  her  birth, 

The  sweetest,  wildest  laud  on  earth.." — Hogg. 
17 


258  PROSODY. 

RULE  V.  —  WORDS  IN  PAIRS. 

When  successive  words  are  joined  in  pairs  by  conjunctions, 
they  should  be  separated  in  pairs  by  the  comma  ;  as,  "  Interest 
and  ambition,  honor  and  shame,  friendship  and  enmity, 
gratitude  and  revenge,  are  the  prime  movers  in  public  trans- 
actions." 

RULE  VI.  —  WORDS  PUT  ABSOLUTE. 

Nouns  or  pronouns  put  absolute,  should,  with  their  ad- 
juncts, be  set  off  by  the  comma  ;  as,  "The  prince,  his  father 
being  dead,  succeeded.  "—  "  This  done,  we  parted."  —  "  Zaccheus, 
make  haste  and  come  down."  —  ((  His  praetor  ship  in  Sicily,  what 
did  it  produce  ?  "  —  Cicero. 

RULE  VH.  —  WORDS  IN  APPOSITION. 

Words  put  in  apposition  (especially  if  they  have  adjuncts), 
are  generally  set  off  by  the  comma  ;  as,  "  He  that  now  calls 
upon  thee,  is  Theodore,  the  hermit  of  Teneriffe"-t-Johnson. 

Exception  1.  —  When  several  words,  in  their  common  order,  are  used 
as  one  compound  name,  the  comma  is  not  inserted  ;  as,  "  Samuel  John- 
son." —  "  Publius  Gavius  Cosanus." 

Exception  2.  —  When  a  common  and  a  proper  name  are  closely  united, 
the  comma  is  not  inserted;  as,  "The  brook  Kidron."  —  "The  river 
Bon."—  "The  empress  Catharine."--"  Paul  the  apostle." 

Exception  3.  —  When  a  pronoun  is  added  to  another  word  merely  for 
emphasis  and  distinction,  the  comma  is  not  inserted  ;  as,  "  Ye  men  of 
Athens."—  "I  myself."—  "  Thou  flaming  minister."—"  You  princes." 
•  Exception  4.  —  When  a  name  acquired  by  some  action  or  relation,  is 
put  in  apposition  with  a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun,  the  comma  is  not 
inserted  ;  as,  "I  made  the  ground  my  bed."  —  "To  make  him  king."  — 
"  Whom  they  revered  as  God."—11  With  modesty  thy  guide."—  Pope. 


RULE  Vm.  —  ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives,  when  something  depends  on  them,  or  when 
they  have  the  import  of  a  dependent  clause,  should,  with 
their  adjuncts,  be  set  off  by  the  comma  ;  as, 
1.  --         _«  Among  the  roots 
Of  hazel,  pendent  o'er  tfie  plaintive  stream, 
They  frame  the  first  foundation  of  their  domes."  —  Thorn. 


PUNCTUATION.  259 

2. "  Up  springs  the  lark, 

Shrill-voic'd  and  loud,  the  messenger  of  morn." — Id. 

Exception. — When  an  adjective  immediately  follows  its  noun,  and 
is  taken  in  a  restrictive  sense,  the  comma  should  not  be  used  before 
it;  as, 

"  On  the  coast  averse  from  entrance." — Milton. 

RULE  IX. — FINITE  VERBS. 

Where  a  finite  verb  is  understood,  a  comma  is  generally 
required ;  as,  "  From  law  arises  security ;  from  security, 
curiosity  ;  from  curiosity,  knowledge." — Murray. 

<•    RULE  X. — INFINITIVES. 

The  infinitive  mood,  when  it  follows  a  verb  from  which  it 
must  be  separated,  or  when  it  depends  on  something  remote 
or  understood,  is  generally,  with  its  adjuncts,  set  off  by  the 
comma  ;  as,  "His  delight  was,  to  assist  the  distressed." — "  To 
conclude,  I  was  reduced  to  beggary." 

"  The  Governor  of  all — has  interposed, 
Not  seldom,  his  avenging  arm,  to  smite 
The  injurious  trampler  upon  nature's  law." — Cowper. 

RULE  XI. — PARTICIPLES. 

Participles,  when  something  depends  on  them,  when  they 
have  the  import  of  a  dependent  clause,  or  when  they  relate 
to  something  understood,  should,  with  their  adjuncts,  be  set 
off  by  the  comma  ;  as, 

1.  "  Young  Edwin,  lighted  by  the  evening  star. 

Lingering  and  listening,  wander'd  down  the  vale." — Beattie. 

2.  "  United,  we  stand ;  divided,  we  fall." 

3.  "  Properly  speaking,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  chance." 

Exception.— When  a  participle  immediately  follows  its  noun,  and  is 
taken  in  a  restrictive  sense,  the  comma  should  not  be  used  before  it : 
as, 

"A  man  renown'd for  repartee 
Will  seldom  scruple  to  make  free 
With  friendship's  finest  feeling. "—  Gowper. 


260  PROSODT. 

RULE  XII. — ADVERBS. 

Adverbs,  when  they  break  the  connection  of  a  simple  sen- 
tence, or  when  they  have  not  a  close  dependence  on  some 
particular  word  in  the  context,  should  be  set  off  by  the 
comma  ;  as,  "  We  must  not,  however,  confound  this  gentleness 
with  the  artificial  courtesy  of  the  world." — "Besides,  the  mind 
must  be  employed." — "Most  unquestionably,  no  fraud  was 
equal  to  all  this." — Lyttelton. 

RULE  Xm. — CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions,  when  they  are  separated  from  the  principal 
clause  that  depends  on  them,  or  when  they  introduce  an 
example,  are  generally  set  off  by  the  comma  ;  as,  "  But,  by  a 
timely  call  upon  Religion,  the  force  of  Habit  was  eluded." 
— Johnson. 

RULE  XTV. — PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions  and  their  objects,  when  they  break  the  con- 
nection of  a  simple  sentence,  or  when  they  do  not  closely  fol- 
low the  words  on  which  they  depend,  are  generally  set  off  by 
the  comma;  as,  "Fashion  is,  for  the  most  part,  nothing  but 
the  ostentation  of  riches." — "  By  reading,  we  add  the  expe- 
rience of  others  to  our  own." 

RULE  XV. — INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections  are  sometimes  set  off  by  the  comma  ;  as, 
"  For,  to,  I  will  call  all  the  families  of  the  kingdoms  of  the 
north." — Jeremiah  i.,  15. 

.    RULE  XVI. — WORDS  REPEATED. 

A  word  emphatically  repeated,  is  generally  set  off  by  the 
comma  ;  as,  "  Happy,  happy,  happy  pair  !  " — Dryden.  "  Ah ! 
no,  no,  no." — Id. 

RULE  XVQ. — DEPENDENT  QUOTATIONS. 

A  quotation  or  observation,  when  it  is  introduced  by  a 
verb  (as,  say,  reply,  and  the  like),  is  generally  separated 


PUNCTUATION.  261 

from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  the  comma  ;  as,  "  'The  book 
of  nature/  said  he,  'is  open  before  thee.'" — "I  say  unto  all, 
Watch." 

The  Semicolon. 

The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of  a 
compound  sentence,  which  are  neither  so  closely  connected 
as  those  which  are  distinguished  by  the  comma,  nor  so 
little  dependent  as  those  which  require  the  colon. 

RULE  I. — COMPOUND  MEMBEBS. 

When  several  compound  members,  some  or  all  of  which 
require  the  comma,  are  constructed  into  a  period,  they  are 
generally  separated  by  the  semicolon  :  as,  "  In  the  regions  in- 
habited by  angelic  natures,  unmingled  felicity  forever  blooms  ; 
joy  flows  there  with  a  perpetual  and  abundant  stream,  nor 
needs  any  mound  to  check  its  course." — Carter. 

RULE  n. — SIMPLE  MEMBEBS. 

When  several  simple  members,  each  of  which  is  complete 
in  sense,  are  constructed  into  a  period  ;  if  they  require  a  pause 
greater  than  that  of  the  comma,  they  are  usually  separated  by 
the  semicolon  :  as,  "  Straws  swim  upon  the  surface ;  but 
pearls  he  at  the  bottom." — Murray. 

"  A  longer  care  man's  helpless  kind  demands  ; 
That  longer  care  contracts  more  lasting  bands." — Pope. 

RULE  HL — APPOSITION,  ETC. 

Words  in  apposition,  in  disjunct  pairs,  or  in  any  other  con- 
struction, if  they  require  a  pause  greater  than  that  of  the 
comma,  and  less  than  that  of  the  colon,  may  be  separated  by 
the  semicolon  :  as,  "There  are  five  moods  ;  the  infinitive,  the 
indicative,  the  potential,  the  subjunctive,  and  the  impera- 
tive." 


262  PROSODY. 

The  Colon. 

The  colon  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of  a  com- 
pound sentence,  which  are  neither  so  closely  connected  as 
those  which  are  distinguished  by  the  semicolon,  nor  so 
little  dependent  as  those  which  require  the  period. 

RULE  I. — ADDITIONAL  REMARKS. 

When  the  preceding  clause  is  complete  in  itself,  but  is  fol- 
lowed by  some  additional  remark  or  illustration,  especially  if 
no  conjunction  is  used,  the  colon  is  generally  and  properly  in- 
serted ;  as,  "  Avoid  evil  doers  :  in  such  society  an  honest  man 
may  become  ashamed  of  himself." — "  See  that  moth  fluttering 
incessantly  around  the  candle  :  man  of  pleasure,  behold  thy 
image. " — Kames. 

RULE  IE. — GREATER  PAUSES. 

When  the  semicolon  has  been  introduced,  and  a  still  greater 
pause  is  required  within  the  period,  the  colon  should  be  em- 
ployed :  as,  "Princes  have  courtiers,  and  merchants  have 
partners ;  the  voluptuous  have  companions,  and  the  wicked 
have  accomplices  :  none  but  the  virtuous  can  have  friends." 

RULE  HI. — INDEPENDENT  QUOTATIONS. 

A  quotation  introduced  without  dependence  on  a  verb  or  a 
conjunction,  is  generally  preceded  by  the  colon  ;  as,  "  In  his 
last  moments  he  uttered  these  words  :  *  I  fall  a  sacrifice  to  sloth 
and  luxury.*" 

The  Period. 

The  period,  or  full  stop,  is  used  to  mark  an  entire 
and  independent  sentence,  whether  simple  or  compound. 

RULE  I. — DISTINCT  SENTENCES. 

When  a  sentence  is  complete  in  respect  to  sense,  and  inde- 
pendent in  respect  to  construction,  it  should  be  marked  with 


the  period ;  as,  "  Every  deviation  from  truth  is  criminal.  Ab- 
hor a  falsehood.  Let  your  words  be  ingenuous.  Sincerity 
possesses  the  most  powerful  charm." 

EULE  II. — ALLIED  SENTENCES. 

The  period  is  often  employed  between  two  sentences  which 
have  a  general  connection,  expressed  by  a  personal  pronoun,  n 
conjunction,  or  a  conjunctive  adverb  ;  as,  "  The  selfish  man 
languishes  in  his  narrow  circle  of  pleasures.  They  are  con- 
fined to  what  affects  his  own  interests.  He  is  obliged  to 
repeat  the  same  gratifications,  till  they  become  insipid.  But 
the  man  of  virtuous  sensibility  moves  in  a  wider  sphere  of 
felicity."— jgfair. 

RULE  ILL — ABBREVIATIONS. 

The  period  is  generally  used  after  abbreviations,  and  very 
often  to  the  exclusion  of  other  points  ;  but,  as  in  this  case  it 
is  not  a  constant  sign  of  pause,  other  points  may  properly 
follow  it,  if  the  words  written  in  full  would  demand  them ;  as, 
A.D.  for  Anno  Domini. — Pro  tern,  for  pro  tempore. — Ult.  for 
ultimo. — i.  e.  for  id  est. 

"  Consult  the  statute  ;  '  quart.'  I  think,  it  is, 

'Edwardi  sext.,'  or  'prim,  et  quint.  Eliz.'" — Pope. 

The  Dash. 

The  dash  is  mostly  used  to  denote  an  unexpected  or 
emphatic  pause  of  variable  length ;  but  sometimes  it  is  a 
sign  of  faltering ;  sometimes,  of  omission  :  if  set  after  an  • 
other  sign  or  pause,  it  usually  lengthens  the  interval. 

RULE  I. — ABRUPT  PAUSES. 

A  sudden  interruption  or  transition  should  be  marked  with 
the  dash  ;  as,  "  '  I  must  inquire  into  the  affair,  and  if ' — '  And 
if!'  interrupted  the  farmer." 

"  Here  lies  the  great — false  marble,  where  ? 
Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here." — Young. 


264  PROSODY. 

RULE  II. — EMPHATIC  PAUSES* 

To  mark  a  considerable  pause,  greater  than  the  structure 
of  the  sentence  or  the  points  inserted  would  seem  to  require, 
the  dash  may  be  employed  ;  as, 

1.  "And  now  they  part — to  meet  no  more." 

2.  "Revere  thyself  ; — and  yet  thyself  despise." 

1        3.  "  Behold  the  picture  !— Is  it  like  ?— Like  whom  ?  " 

RULE  ILL — FAULTY  DASHES. 

Dashes  needlessly  inserted,  or  substitued  for  other  stops 
more  definite,  are  in  general  to  be  treated  as  errors  in  punc- 
tuation. 

EXAMPLE  :  "  — You  shall  go  home  directly,  Le  Fevre,  said  my  uncle 
Toby,  to  my  house, — and  we  '11  send  for  a  doctor  to  see  what's  the  mat- 
ter,— and  we  '11  have  an  apothecary, — and  the  corporal  shall  be  your 
nurse  ; — and  I  '11  be  your  servant,  Le  Fevre." — Sterne. 

Better  thus:  "'You  shall  go  home  directly,  Le  Fevre,'  said,  my 
uncle  Toby,  '  to  my  house  ;  and  we'll  send  for  a  doctor  to  see  what's  the 
matter  ;  and  we'll  have  an  apothecary  ;  and  the  corporal  shall  be  your 
nurse:  and  I'll  be  your  servant,  Le  Fevre.'" 

The  Eroteme. 

The  eroteme,  or  note  of  interrogation,  is  used 
to  designate  a  question. 

RULE  I. — QUESTIONS  DIRECT. 

Questions  expressed  directly  as  such,  if  finished,  should 
always  be  followed  by  the  note  of  interrogation  ;  as, 
"  In  life,  can  love  be  bought  with  gold  ? 
Are  friendship's  pleasures  to  be  sold  ?  " — Johnson. 

RULE  IE. — QUESTIONS  UNITED. 

When  two  or  more  questions  are  united  in  one  compound 
sentence,  the  comma  or  semicolon  is  sometimes  placed  be- 
tween them,  and  the  note  of  interrogation,  after  the  last  only  ; 
as, 

"  Truths  would  you  teach,  or  save  a  sinking  land  ? 
All  fear,  none  aid  you,  and  few  understand." — Pope. 


EULE  IEL — QUESTIONS  INDIRECT. 

When  a  question  is  mentioned,  but  not  put  directly  as  a 
question,  it  loses  both  the  quality  and  the  sign  of  interroga- 
tion ;  as,  "The  Cyprians  asked  me  why  I  wept" — Murray. 

The  Ecphoneme. 

The  ecphoneme,  or  note  of  exclamation,  is 

used  to  denote  a  pause  with  some  strong  or  sudden  emo- 
tion of  the  mind  ;  and,  as  a  sign  of  great  wonder,  it  may 
be  repeated.  [ ! ! !  ] 

^   RULE  I. — INTERJECTIONS,  ETC. 

Interjections,  and  other  expressions  of  great  emotion,  are 
generally  followed  by  the  note  of  exclamation  ;  as, 

"  O  !  let  me  listen  to  the  words  of  life  ! " — Thomson. 

EULE  IE. — INVOCATIONS. 

After  an  earnest  address  or  solemn  invocation,  the  note  of 
exclamation  is  usually  preferred  to  any  other  point;  as, 
"  Whereupon,  O  king  Agrippa  !  I  was  not  disobedient  unto 
the  heavenly  vision." — Acts  xxvi.,  19. 

EULE  HE. — EXCLAMATORY  QUESTIONS. 

Words  uttered  with  vehemence  in  the  form  of  a  question, 
but  without  reference  to  an  answer,  should  be  followed  by 
the  note  of  exclamation  ;  as,  "  How  madly  have  I  talked  ! " — 
Young. 

The  Curves. 

The  curves,  or  marks  of  parenthesis,  are  used 
to  distinguish  a  clause  or  hint  that  is  hastily  thrown  in 
between  the  parts  of  a  sentence  to  which  it  does  not 
properly  belong ;  as, 

"  To  others  do  (the  law  is  not  severe, 
What  to  thyself  thou  wishest  to  be  done."— Beattie. 


PROSODY. 

OBS. — The  Incidental  clause  should  be  uttered  in  a  lower  tone,  and 
faster  than  the  principal  sentence.  It  always  requires  a  pause  as  great 
as  that  of  a  comm  *  or  greater. 

RULE  I. — THE  PAKENTHESIS. 

A  clause  that  breaks  the  unity  of  a  sentence  too  much  to  be 
incorporated  with  it,  and  only  such,  should  be  enclosed  as  a 
parenthesis ;  as, 

"  Know  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below." — Pope. 

RULE  II. — INCLUDED  POINTS. 

The  curves  do  not  supersede  other  stops  ;  and,  as  the  paren- 
thesis terminates  with  a  pause  equal  to  that  which  precedes  it, 
the  same  point  should  be  included,  except  when  the  sentences 
differ  in  form  ;  as, 

1.  "Man's  thirst  of  happiness  declares  it  is  : 

(For  nature  never  gravitates  to  nought :) 

That  thirst  unquench'd,  declares  it  is  not  here." — Young. 

2.  "  Night  visions  may  befriend :   (as  sung  above :) 

Our  waking  dreams  are  fatal.  How  I  dreamt 
Of  things  impossible  !  (could  sleep  do  more  ?) 
Of  joys  perpetual  in  perpetual  change." — Young. 

Other  Marks. 

There  are  also  several  other  marks,  which  are  occasion- 
ally used  for  various  purposes,  as  follow  : — 

1.  [  '  ]  The  Apostrophe  usually  denotes  either  the  possessive  case 
of  a  noun,  or  the  elision  of  one  or  more  letters  of  a  word;  as,  "The 
girl's  regard  to  her  parents'  advice." — 'gan,  lotfd,  e'en,  thro' ;  for  began, 
loved,  even,  through. 

2.  [  -  ]  The  Hyphen  connects  the  parts  of  many  compound  words, 
especially  such  as  have  two  accents  ;  as,  ever-living.    It  is  also  frequently 
inserted  where  a  word  is    divided  into    syllables ;    as,   con-tem-plate. 
Placed  at  the  end  of  a  line,  it  shows  that  one  or  more  syllables  of  a  word 
are  carried  forward  to  the  next  line. 


PUKCTtTATICXN'.  267 

8.  ["]  The  Diaeresis,  or  Dialysis,  placed  over  either  of  two 
contiguous  vowels,  shows  that  they  are  not  a  diphthong ;  as,  Dande, 
aerial. 

4.  [/  ]  The  Acute  Accent  marks  the  syllable  which  requires  the 
principal  stress  in  pronunciation  ;  as,  equal,  (quality.     It  is  sometimes 
used  in  opposition  to  the  grave  accent,  to  distinguish  a  close  or  short 
vowel;  as,  "  Fancy  :  "  or  to  denote  the  rising  inflection  of  the  voice  ; 
as,  "la  it  he?" 

5.  [  V  ]  The  Crave  Accent  is  used  in  opposition  to  the  acute,  to 
distinguish  an  open  or  long  vowel ;  as,  "  Fdvor  •"  (Murray  :)  or  to  de- 
note the  falling  inflection  of  the  voice  ;  as,  "  Yes  it  is  he." 

6.  [*  ]  The  Circumflex  generally  denotes  either  the  .broad  sound 
of  a,  or  an  unusual  and  long  sound  given  to  some  other  vowel ;  as  in 
air,  care,  ere,  there,  Mir,  urn,  burn. 

7.  [~]  The  Breve,  or  Stenotone,  is  used  to  denote  either  a  close 
vowel  or  a  syllable  of  short  quantity  ;  as,  raven,  to  devour. 

8.  ["]  The  Macron,  or  Macrotone,  is  used  to  denote  either  an 
open  vowel  or  a  syllable  of  long  quantity  ;  as,  raven,  a  bird. 

9.  [ ]   or  [****]  The   Ellipsis,  denotes  the  omissior  of   some 

letters  or  words  ;  as,  K—g,  for  king. 

10.  [  A  J  The  Caret,  used  only  in  writing,  shows  where  to  insert 
words  or  letters  that  have  been  accidentally  omitted. 

11.  [-^— .]  The  Brace  serves  to  unite  a  triplet,  or  to  connect  several 
terms  with  something  to  which  they  are  all  related. 

12.  [§]  The  Section   marks  the   smaller  divisions  of  a  book  or 
chapter ;  and,  with  the  help  of  numbers,  serves  to  abridge  references. 

13.  [t]  The  Paragraph  (chiefly  used  in  the  Bible)  denotes  the 
commencement  of  a  new  subject.     The    parts  of  discourse  which  are 
called  paragraphs  are,   in  general,   sufficiently  distinguished  by  begin- 
ning a  new  line,  and  carrying  the  first  word  a  little  forward  or  backward. 

14.  [""]  The  Guillemots,  or  Quotation  Points,  distinguish 
words  that  are  taken  from  another  author  or  speaker.      A  .quotation 
within  a  quotation  is  marked  with  single  points,  which,  when  both  are 
employed,  are  placed  within  the  others. 

15.  [[]]  The  Crotchets,  or  Brackets,  generally  enclose  some  cor- 
rection or  explanation,  or  the  subject  to  be  explained;  as,  "He  [the 
speaker]  was  of  a  different  opinion." 

16.  [lCif°]  The  Index,  or  Hand,  points  out  something  remarkable, 
or  what  the  reader  should  particularly  observe. 

17.  [*]  The  asterisk,  or  star,  [f]  the  obelisk,  or  dagger, 
[J]  the  diesis,  or  double  dagger,  and  [1]  the  parallels,  refer 


PKOSODY. 

to  marginal  notes.  The  section  [§]  and  the  paragraph  ft], 
are  also  often  used  for  marks  of  reference,  the  former  being  usually 
applied  to  the  fourth,  and  the  latter  to  the  sixth,  note  on  a  page ;  for, 
by  the  usage  of  printers,  these  signs  are  now  commonly  introduced  in 
the  following  order :  1  *,  2f,  3J,  4§,  5  |,  61,  7**,  8ft,  etc.  When 
many  references  are  to  be  made,  the  smatt  Utters  of  the  alphabet,  or  the 
numerical  figures,  in  their  order,  may  be  conveniently  used  for  the 
same  purpose. 

18.  [%*]  The  asterism,  or  three  stars,  a  sign  not  very  often 
used,  is  placed  before  a  long  or  general  note,  to  mark  it  as  a  note,  with- 
out giving  it  a  particular  reference. 

19.  [9]    The    cedilla    is    a   mark  borrowed  from  the  French,  by 
whom  it  is  placed  under  the  letter  c,  to  give  it  the  sound  of  s  before  a 
or  o;  as,  in  the  words,  "facade,"  li  Alen$on."     It  is  also  attached  to 
other  letters,  to  denote  their  soft  sounds :  as,  ph  as  &  ;  s  as  z  ;  x  as  gz. 

For  oral  exercises  in  punctuation,  the  teacher  may  select  any  well-pointed  book,  to 
which  the  foregoing  rales  and  explanations  may  be  applied  by  the  pupil.  An  application 
of  the  principles  of  punctuation,  either  to  points  rightly  inserted,  or  in  the  correction  of 
errors,  is  as  easy  a  process  as  ordinary  syntactical  parsing  or  correcting  :  and,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  utility  of  these  principles,  as  useful.  The  exercise,  in  relation  to  correct 
pointing,  consists  in  reading  some  passage,  in  successive  parts,  according  to  its  points ; 
naming  the  latter  as  they  occur ;  and  repeating  the  rules  or  doctrines  of  punctuation,  as 
the  reasons  for  the  marks  employed.  Written  exercises  are  given  below. 


Exercises  in  Punctuation* 

I — The  Comma. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  comma  where  it  is 


EULE   I. 

The  dogmatist's  assurance  is  paramount  to  argument. 
The  whole  course  of  his  argumentation  comes  to  nothing. 
The  fieldmouse  builds  her  garner  under  ground. 

Exceptions. 
One  of  the  arts  that  contribute  most  to  the  cultivation  of  the  human 

mind  is  the  art  of  language. 

To  remain  insensible  to  such  provocation  is  apathy. 
He  who  strives  to  injure  others  cannot  be  happy. 

RULE  II. 

I  was  eyes  to  the  blind  and  feet  was  I  to  the  lame. 
They  are  gone  but  the  remembrance  of  them  is  sweet. 


PUNCTUATION. 

He  has  passed  it  is  likely  through  varieties  of  fortune. 
The  mind  though  free  has  a  governor  within  itself. 
They  I  doubt  not  oppose  the  bill  on  public  principles. 
Be  silent  be  grateful  and  adore. 

He  is  an  adept  in  language  who  always  speaks  the  truth. 
The  race  is  not  to  the  swift  nor  the  battle  to  the  strong. 

Exceptions. 

1.  He  that  has  far  to  go  should  not  hurry. 

Hobbes  believed  the  eternal  truths  which  he  opposed. 
Feeble  are  all  pleasures  in  which  the  heart  has  no  share. 

2.  A  good  name  is  better  than  precious  ointment. 
Thinkst  thou  that  duty  shall  have  dread  to  speak  ? 
The  spleen  is  seldom  felt  where  Flora  reigns. 

RULE  m. 

The  city  army  court  espouse  my  cause. 

Wars  pestilences  and  diseases  are  terrible  instructors. 

Walk  daily  in  a  pleasant  airy  and  umbrageous  garden. 

Wit  spirits  faculties  but  make  it  worse. 

Men  wives  and  children  stare  cry  out  and  run. 

RULE  IV. 

Hope  and  fear  are  essentials  in  religion. 
Praise  and  adoration  are  perfective  of  our  souls. 
We  know  bodies  and  their  properties  most  perfectly. 
Satisfy  yourselves  with  what  is  rational  and  attainable. 

Exceptions. 

1.  God  will  rather  look  to  the  inward  motions  of  the  mind  than  to  the 

outward  form  of  the  body. 
Gentleness  is  unassuming  in  opinion  and  temperate  in  zeal. 

2.  He  has  experienced  prosperity  and  also  adversity. 
All  sin  essentially  is  and  must  be  mortal. 

3.  One  person  is  chosen  chairman  or  moderator. 
Duration  or  time  is  measured  by  motion. 
The  governor  or  viceroy  is  chosen  annually. 

4.  Reflection  reason  still  the  ties  improve. 

His  neat  plain  parlor  wants  our  modern  style. 

RULE  V. 

I  inquired  and  rejected  consulted  and  deliberated. 

Seed-time  and  harvest  cold  and  heat  summer  and  winter  day  and  night 
shall  not  cease. 


270  PROSODY. 

RULE  VL 

The  night  being  dark  they  did  not  proceed. 
There  being  no  other  coach  we  had  no  alternative. 
Remember  my  son  that  human  life  is  the  journey  of  a  day. 
All  circumstances  considered  it  seems  right. 
He  that  overcometh  to  him  will  I  give  power. 
Your  land  strangers  devour  it  in  your  presence. 
Ah  sinful  nation  a  people  laden  with  iniquity ! 

With  heads  declin'd  ye  cedars  homage  pay ; 

Be  smooth  ye  rocks  ye  rapid  floods  give  way  t 

RULE  VII. 

Now  Philomel  sweet  songstress  charms  the  night. 

Tis  chanticleer  the  shepherd's  clock  announcing  day. 

The  evening  star  love's  harbinger  appears. 

The  queen  of  night  fair  Dian  smiles  serene. 

There  is  yet  one  man  Micaiah  the  son  of  Imlah. 

Our  whole  company  man  by  man  ventured  down. 

As  a  work  of  wit  the  Dunciad  has  few  equals. 

In  the  same  temple  the  resounding  wood 
All  vocal  beings  hymned  their  equal  God. 

Exceptions. 

1.  The  last^king  of  Rome  was  Tarquinius  Superbus. 
Bossuet  highly  eulogizes  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria. 

2.  For  he  went  and  dwelt  by  the  brook  Cherith. 
Remember  the  example  of  the  patriarch  Joseph. 

3.  I  wisdom  dwell  with  prudence. 

Ye  fools  be  ye  of  an  understanding  heart. 

I  tell  you  that  which  you  yourselves  do  know. 

4.  I  crown  thee  king  of  intimate  delights. 

I  count  the  world  a  stranger  for  thy  sake. 
And  this  makes  friends  such  miracles  below. 
God  has  pronounced  it  death  to  taste  that  tree. 
Grace  makes  the  slave  a  freeman. 

RULE  VIII. 

Deaf  with  the  noise  I  took  my  hasty  flight. 

Him  piteous  of  his  youth  soft  disengage. 

I  played  a  while  obedient  to  the  fair. 

Love  free  as  air  spreads  his  light  wings  and  flies. 
Then  active  still  and  unconfmed  his  mind 
Explores  the  vast  extent  of  ages  past. 


PUNCTUATION.  271 

But  there  is  yet  a  liberty  unsung 
By  poets  and  by  senators  unpraised. 

Exceptions, 

I  will  marry  a  wife  beautiful  as  the  Houries. 

He  was  a  man  able  to  speak  upon  doubtful  questions. 

These  are  the  persons  anxious  for  the  change. 

Are  they  men  worthy  of  confidence  and  support  ? 

RULE  IX. 

Poverty  wants  some  things ;  avarice  all  things. 

Honesty  has  one  face ;  flattery  two. 

One  king  is  too  soft  and  easy ;  an  other  too  fiery. 

Mankind's  esteem  they  court ;  and  he  his  own : 

Theirs  the  wiM  chase  of  false  felicities  ; 

His  the  compos'd  possession  of  the  true. 

RULE  X. 

My  desire  is  to  live  in  peace. 

The  great  difficulty  was  to  compel  them  to  pay  their  debts. 

To  strengthen  our  virtue  God  bids  us  trust  in  him. 

I  made  no  bargain  with  you  to  live  always  drudging. 

To  sum  up  all  her  tongue  confessed  the  shrew. 

To  proceed  my  own  adventure  was  still  more  laughable. 
We  come  not  with  design  of  wasteful  prey 
To  drive  the  country  force  the  swains  away. 

RULE  XI. 

Having  given  this  answer  he  departed. 
Some  sunk  to  beasts  find  pleasure  end  in  pain. 
Eased  of  her  load  subjection  grows  more  light.- 
Death  still  draws  nearer  never  seeming  near. 
He  lies  full  low  gored  with  wounds  and  weltering  in  his  blood. 
Kind  is  fell  Lucifer  compared  to  thee. 
Man  considered  in  himself  is  helpless  and  wretched. 
Like  scattered  down  by  howling  Eurus  blown. 
He  with  wide  nostrils  snorting  skims  the  wave. 
Youth  is  properly  speaking  introductory  to  manhood. 

Exceptions. 

He  kept  his  eye  fixed  on  the  country  before  him. 
They  have  their  part  assigned  them  to  act. 
Years  will  repair  not  the  injuries  done  by 


272  PROSODY. 

RULE  XII. 

Yes  -we  both  were  philosophers. 

However  providence  saw  fit  to  cross  our  design. 

Besides  I  know  that  the  eye  of  the  public  is  upon  me. 

The  fact  is  certainly  much  otherwise. 

For  nothing  surely  can  be  more  inconsistent. 

RULE  "XTTT. 

For  in  such  retirement  the  soul  is  strengthend. 
It  engages'our  desires ;  and  in  some  degree  satisfies  them. 
But  of  every  Christian  virtue  piety  is  an  essential  part. 
The  English  verb  is  variable  ;  as  looe  lovest  loves. 

RULE  XIV. 

In  a  word  charity  is  the  soul  of  social  life. 
By  the  bowstring  I  can  repress  violence  and  fraud. 
Some  by  being  too  artful  forfeit  the  reputation  of  probity. 
With  regard  to  morality  I  was  not  indifferent. 

RULE  XV. 

• 

Lo  earth  receives  him  from  the  bending  skies ! 
Behold  I  am  against  thee  O  inhabitant  of  the  valley  I 

RULE  XVI. 

I  would  never  consent  never  never  never. 
His  teeth  did  chatter  chatter  chatter  still. 
Come  come  come  come— to  bed  to  bed  to  bed. 

RULE  XVEI. 

He  cried  "  Cause  every  man  to  go  out  from  me." 

"  Almet "  said  he  "  remember  what  thou  hast  seen." 

I  answered  "  Mock  not  thy  servant  who  is  but  a  worm  before  thee." 

II.— The  Semicolon. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  comma  and  the  semic 
colon  where  they  are  required. 

RULE  L 

"Man  is  weak"  answered  his  companion  "knowledge  is  more  than 

equivalent  to  force." 
To  judge  rightly  of  the  present  we  must  oppose  it  to  the  past  for  all 

judgment  is  comparative  and  of  the  future  nothing  can  be  known. 
"Content  is  natural  wealth  "  says  Socrates  to  which  I  shall  add  "  luxury 

is  artificial  poverty." 


PUNCTUATION.  273 

Converse  and  love  mankind  might  strongly  draw 
When  love  was  liberty  and  nature  law. 

EULE  H. 

Be  wise  to-day  'tis  madness  to  defer. 
The  present  all  their  care  the  future  his. 
Wit  makes  an  enterpriser  sense  a  man. 
Ask  thought  for  joy  grow  rich  and  hoard  within. 
Song  soothes  our  pains  and  age  has  pains  to  soothe. 
Here  an  enemy  encounters  there  a  rival  supplants  him. 
Our  answer  to  their  reasons  is  No  to  their  scoffs  nothing. 

RULE  III. 
In  Latin  there  are  six  cases  namely  the  nominative  the  genitive  the 

dative  the  accusative  the  vocative  and  the  ablative. 
Most  English  notfns  form  the  plural  by  adding  s  as  boy  boys  nation 

nations  king  kings  bay  bays. 
Bodies  are  such  as  are  endued  with  a  vegetable  soul  as  plants  a  sensitive 

soul  as  animals  or  a  rational  soul  as  the  body  of  man. 

III.— The  Colon. 

.Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  comma,  the  semi- 
colon, and  the  colon  where  they  are  required. 

RULE  I. 

Death  wounds  to  cure  we  fall  we  rise  we  reign. 
Bliss  ! — there  is  none  but  unprecarious  bliss. 
That  is  the  gem  sell  all  and  purchase  that. 
Beware  of  usurpation  God  is  the  judge  of  all. 

RULE  H. 

I  have  the  world  here  before  me  I  will  review  it  at  leisure  surely  hap- 
piness is  somewhere  to  be  found. 

A  melancholy  enthusiast  courts  persecution  and  when  he  cannot  obtain 
it  afflicts  himself  with  absurd  penances  but  the  holiness  of  St.  Paul 
consisted  in  the  simplicity  of  a  pious  life. 

Observe  his  awful  portrait  and  admire 
Nor  stop  at  wonder  imitate  and  live. 

RULE  III. 

Such  is  our  Lord's  injunction  "Watch  and  pray." 

He  died  praying  for  his  persecutors  "  Father  forgive  them  they  know 

not  what  they  do." 

On  his  cane  was  inscribed  this  motto  "  Festina  lenfo" 
18 


274  PROSODY. 


IV.— The  Period. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  comma,  the  semi- 
colon, the  colon,  and  the  period,  where  they  are  required. 

RULE  I. 

Then  appeared  the  sea  and  the  dry  land  the  mountains  rose  and  the 
rivers  flowed  the  sun  and  moon  began  their  course  in  the  skies 
herbs  and  plants  clothed  the  ground  the  air  the  earth  and  the 
waters  were  stored  with  their  respective  inhabitants  at  last  man  was 
made  in  the  image  of  God 

In  general  those  parents  have  most  reverence  who  most  deserve  it  for 
he  that  lives  well  cannot  be  despised 

RULE  H. 

Civil  accomplishments  frequently  give  rise  to  fame  but  a  distinction  is 
to  be  made  between  fame  and  true  honor  the  statesman  the  orator 
or  the  poet  may  be  famous  while  yet  the  man  himself  is  far  from 
being  honored 

RULE  in. 

Glass  was  invented  in  Eng  by  Benalt  a  monk  A  D  664 
The  Roman  Era  U  C  commenced  B  C  753 
Here  is  the  Literary  Life  of  S  T  Coleridge  Esq 

V.— The  Dash. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  dash,  and  such  other 
points  as  are  required. 

RULE  I. 
You  say  famous  very  often  and  I  don't  know  exactly  what  it  means  a 

famous  uniform  famous  doings  What  does  famous  mean 
O  why  famous  means  Now  don't  you  know  what  famous  means  It  means 
It  is  a  word  that  people  say  It  is  the  fashion  to  say  it  It  means  it 
means  famous 

RULE  II. 

But  this  life  is  not  all  there  is  there  is  full  surely  another  state  abiding 
us  And  if  there  is  what  is  thy  prospect  O  remorseless  obdurate 
Thou  shalt  hear  it  would  be  thy  wisdom  to  think  thon  now  nearest 
the  sound  of  that  trumpet  which  shall  awake  the  dead  Return  O 
yet  return  to  the  Father  of  mercies  and  live 

The  future  pleases  Why  The  present  pains 
But  that's  a  secret  yes  which  all  men  kno^y 


PUNCTUATION.  275 

VI.— Note  of  Interrogation. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  note  of  interrogation, 

and  such  other  points  as  are  required. 

RULE  I. 

Does  nature  bear  a  tyrant's  breast 

Is  she  the  friend  of  stern  control 
Wears  she  the  despot's  purple  vest 
Or  fetters  she  the  free-born  soul 
Why  should  a  man  whose  blood  is  warm  within 
Sit  like  his  grandsire  cut  in  alabaster 
Who  art  thou  courteous  stranger  and  from  whence 
Why  roam  thy  steps  to  this  abandon'd  dale 

RULE  II. 

Who  bid  the  stork  Columbus-like  explore 
Heavens  not  his  own  and  worlds  unknown  before 
Who  calls  the  council  states  the  certain  day 
Who  forms  the  phalanx  and  who  points  the  way 

RULE  III. 

Ask  of  thy  mother  Earth  why  oaks  are  made 
Taller  and  stronger  than  the  weeds  they  shade 
They  asked  me  who  I  was  and  whither  I  was  going 

VII — Note  of  Exclamation. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  note  of  exclamation, 
and  such  other  points  as  are  necessary. 

RULE  I. 

Alas  how  is  that  rugged  heart  forlorn 
Behold  the  victor  vanquish'd  by  the  worm 
Bliss  sublunary  bliss  proud  words  and  vain 

RULE  II. 

O  Popular  Applause  what  heart  of  man 
Is  proof  against  thy  sweet  seducing  charms 
More  than  thy  balm  O  Gilead  heals  the  wound 

RULE  III. 

How  often  have  I  loitered  o'er  thy  green 
Where  humble  happiness  endear'd  each  scent 
What  bla.ck  despair  what  horror  fills  his  heart 


276  PROSODY. 

VIII.— Marks  of  Parenthesis. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  marks  of  parenthe- 
sis, and  such  other  points  as  are  necessary. 

RULE  I. 

And  all  the  question  wrangle  e'er  so  long 

Is  only  this  If  God  has  placed  him  wrong 

And  who  what  God  foretells  who  speaks  in  things 

Still  louder  than  in  words  shall  dare  deny 

RULE  II. 

Say  was  it  virtue  more  though  Heav'n  ne'er  gave 
Lamented  Digby  sunk  thee  to  the  grave 
Where  is  that  thrift  that  avarice  of  time 
O  glorious  avarice  thought  of  death  inspires 
And  oh  the  last  last  what  can  words  express 
Thought  reach  the  last  last  silence  of  a  friend 

IX.— Promiscuous. 

Copy  the  foUowing  sentences,  and  insert  the  points  which  they  require, 

As  one  of  them  opened  his  sack  he  espied  his  money 

They  cried  out  the  more  exceedingly  Crucify  him 

The  soldiers  counsel  was  to  kill  the  prisoners 

It  is  my  son's  coat  an  evil  beast  hath  devoured  him 

Peace  of  all  worldly  blessings  is  the  most  valuable 

By  this  time  the  very  foundation  was  removed 

The  only  words  he  uttered  were  I  am  a  Roman  citizen 

Some  distress  either  felt  or  feared  gnaws  like  a  worm 

How  then  must  I  determine  Have  I  no  interest  If  I  have  not  I  am  sta- 
tioned here  to  no  purpose  Harris 

In  the  fire  the  destruction  was  so  swift  sudden  vast  and  miserable  as  to 
have  no  parallel  in  story 

Dionysius  the  tyrant  of  Sicily  was  far  from  being  happy 

I  ask  now  Verres  what  thou  hast  to  advance 

Excess  began  and  sloth  sustains  the  trade 

Fame  can  never  reconcile  a  man  to  a  death  bed 

They  that  sail  on  the  sea  tell  of  the  danger 

Be  doers  of  the  word  and  not  hearers  only 

The  storms  of  wint'ry  time  will  quickly  pass 

Here  hope  that  smiling  angel  stands 

Disguise  I  see  thou  art  a  wickedness 


CTSTCTUATION;  277 

There  are  no  tricks  in  plain  and  simple  faith 

True  love  strikes  root  in  reason  passion's  foe 

Two  gods  divide  them  all  Pleasure  aiid  Gain 

I  am  satisfied  My  son  has  done  his  duty 

Rememher  Almet  the  vision  which  thou  hast  seen 

I  beheld  an  enclosure  beautiful  as  the  gardens  of  paradise 

The  knowledge  which  I  have  received  I  will  communicate 

But  I  am  not  yet  happy  and  therefore  I  despair 

Wretched  mortals  said  I  to  what  purpose  are  you  busy 

Bad  as  the  world  is  respect  is  always  paid  to  virtue 

In  a  word  he  views  men  in  the  clear  sunshine  of  charity 

This  being  the  case  I  am  astonished  and  amazed 

Yet  at  the  same  time  the  man  himself  undergoes  a  change 

You  heroes  regard  nothing  but  glory 

Take  care  lest  whiljj  you  strive  to  reach  the  top  you  fall 

Proud  and  presumptuous  they  can  brook  no  opposition 

Nay  some  awe  of  religion  may  still  subsist 

Then  said  he  Lo  I  come  to  do  thy  will  O  God 

As  for  me  behold  I  am  in  your  hand 

Now  I  Paul  myself  beseech  you 

He  who  lives  always  in  public  cannot  live  to  his  own  soul  whereas  he 

who  retires  remains  calm 

Therefore  behold  I  even  I  will  utterly  forget  you 
This  text  speaks  only  of  those  to  whom  it  speaks 
Yea  he  warmeth  himself  and  saith  Aha  I  am  warm 
King  Agrippa  believest  thou  the  prophets 

To  whom  can  riches  give  repute  or  trust 
Content  or  pleasure  but  the  good  and  just  Pope 

To  him  no  high  no  low  no  great  no  small 
He  fills  he  bounds  connects  and  equals  all  Id 

Reason's  whole  pleasure  all  the  joys  of  sense 

Lie  in  three  words  health  peace  and  competence  Id 

Not  so  for  once  indulg'd  they  sweep  the  main 
Deaf  to  the  call  or  hearing  hear  in  vain  Anon 

Say  will  the  falcon  stooping  from  above 

Smit  with  her  varying  plumage  spare  the  dove  Pope 

Throw  Egypt's  by  and  offer  in  its  stead 
Offer  the  crown  on  Berenice's  head  Id 

Falsely  luxurious  will  not  man  awake 

And  springing  from  the  bed  of  sloth  enjoy 

The  cool  the  fragrant  and  the  silent  hour  Tlwmm, 


278  PROSODY. 

Yet  thus  it  is  nor  otherwise  can  be 

So  far  from  aught  romantic  what  I  sing  Young 

Thyself  first  know  then  love  a  self  there  is 

Of  virtue  fond  that  kindles  at  her  charms  Id 

How  far  that  little  candle  throws  his  beams 

So  shines  a  good  deed  in  a  naughty  world  STiakspearc 

You  have  too  much  respect  upon  the  world 

They  lose  it  that  do  buy  it  with  much  care  Id 

How  many  things  by  season  season'd  are 

To  their  right  praise  and  true  perfection  Id 

Canst  thou  descend  from  converse  with  the  skies 

And  seize  thy  brother's  throat  for  what  a  clod  Young 


II.— UTTERANCE. 

Utterance  is  the  art  of  vocal  expression.  It  includes 
the  principles  of  pronunciation  and  elocution. 

Pronunciation. 

Pronunciation,  as  distinguished  from  elocution,  is 
the  utterance  of  words  taken  separately. 

Pronunciation  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  just  powers 
of  the  letters  in  all  their  combinations,  and  of  the  force 
and  seat  of  the  accent. 

The  just  powers  of  the  letters  are  those  sounds  which 
are  given  to  them  by  the  best  readers. 

Accent  is  the  peculiar  stress  which  we  lay  upon  some 
particular  syllable  of  a  word,  whereby  that  syllable  is  distin- 
guished from  the  rest  ;  as,  gram-mar,  gram-md-ri-an. 

Every  word  of  more  than  one  syllable,  has  one  of  its  syllables  ac- 
cented. 

When  the  word  is  long,  for  the  sake  of  harmony  or  distinctness,  we 
often  give  a  secondary  or  less  forcible  accent  to  another  syllable  ;  as,  to 
the  last  of  tem-per-a-ture,  and  to  the  second  of  in-dem-ni-fi-cd-tion. 

A  full  and  open  pronunciation  of  the  long  vowel  sounds,  a  clear  articu- 
lation of  the  consonants,  a  forcible  and  well-placed  accent,  and  a  distinct 
Utterance  of  the  unaccented  syllables,  distinguish  the  elegant  speaker. 


UTTERANCE.  279 


Elocution. 

Elocution  is  the  utterance  of  words  that-are  arranged 
into  sentences,  and  form  discourse. 

Elocution  requires  a  knowledge,  and  right  application, 
of  emphasis,  pauses,  inflections,  and  tones. 

I. — Emphasis  is  the  peculiar  stress  of  voice  which  we  lay 
upon  some  particular  word  or  words  in  a  sentence,  which  are 
thereby  distinguished  from  the  rest,  as  being  more  especially 
significant. 

n. — Pauses  are  cessations  in  utterance,  which  serve 
equally  to  relieve  the  speaker,  and  to  render  language  intelligi- 
ble and  pleasing.  The  duration  of  the  pauses  should  be  propor- 
tionate to  the  degree  of  connection  between  the  parts  of  the 
discourse. 

IH. — Inflections  are  those  peculiar  variations  of  the  hu- 
man voice,  by  which  a  continuous  sound  is  made  -to  pass  from 
one  note,  key,  or  pitch,  into  another.  The  passage  of  the  voice 
from  a  lower  to  a  higher  or  shriller  note,  is  called  the  rising 
or  upward  inflection.  The  passage  of  the  voice  from  a  higher 
to  a  lower  or  graver  note,  is  called  the  falling  or  downward 
inflection.  These  two  opposite  inflections  may  be  heard  in 
the  following  examples  :  1.  The  rising,  "  Do  you  mean  to  go  ?  " 
2.  The  falling,  "  When  will  you  go  ?  " 

OBS. — Questions  that  maybe  answered  by  yes  or  no,  require  the 
rising  inflection  ;  those  that  demand  any  other  answer,  must  be  uttere.l 
with  the  falling  inflection. 

IV. — Tones  are  those  modulations  of  the  voice,  which  de- 
pend upon  the  feelings  of  the  speaker.  They  are  what  Sheridan 
denominates  "  the  language  of  emotions."  And  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  they  be  natural,  unaffected,  and 
rightly  adapted  to  the  subject  and  to  the  occasion  ;  for  upon 
them,  in  a  great  measure,  depends  all  that  is  pleasing  or  in- 
teresting in  elocution. 


280  PROSODY. 


III. -FIGURES. 

A  figure,  in  grammar,  is  an  intentional  deviation  from 
the  ordinary  spelling,  formation,  construction,  or  applica- 
tion, of  words.  There  are,  accordingly,  figures  of  Orthog- 
raphy, figures  of  Etymology,  figures  of  Syntax,  and  figures 
of  Ehetoric.  When  figures  are  judiciously  employed,  they 
both  strengthen  and  adorn  expression.  They  occur  more 
frequently  in  poetry  than  in  prose,  and  several  of  them  are 
merely  poetic  licenses. 


Figures  of  Orthography. 

A  figure  of  orthography  is  an  intentional  devia- 
tion from  the  ordinary  or  true  spelling  of  a  word. 

The  principal  figures  of  orthography  are  two;  namely, 
Mi-me'-sis  and  Ar'-cha-ism. 

I. — Mimesis  is  a  ludicrous  imitation  of  some  mistake  or 
mispronunciation  of  a  word,  in  which  the  error  is  mimicked 
by  a  false  spelling,  or  the  taking  of  one  word  for  another ; 
as,  "  Maister,  says  he,  have  you  any  wery  good  weal  in  your 
vdllet  ?  " — "  Ay,  he  was  porn  at  Monmouth,  captain  Gower." 
— Shak.  "I  will  description  the  matter  to  you,  if  you  be 
capacity  of  it." — Id. 

"Perdigious!  I  can  hardly  stand." — Lloyd. 

n. — An  archaism  is  a  word  or  phrase  expressed  accord- 
ing to  ancient  usage,  and  not  according  to  our  modern  or- 
thography ;  as,  "Newe  grene  chese  of  smalle  clammynes  com- 
fortethe  a  hotte  stomake." — T.  PAYNEL  :  Tooke's  Diversions,  ii, 
132. 

"  With  him  was  rev'rend  Contemplation  pight, 
Bow-bent  with  eld,  his  beard  of  snowy  hue." — Beatti& 


FIGURES. 


Figures  of  Etymology. 

A  figure  of  etymology  is  an  intentional  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  formation  of  a  word. 

The  principal  figures  of  etymology  are  eight  ;  namely, 
a-phaer'-e-sis,  pros'-the-sis,  syn'-co-pe,  a- 
poc'-o-pe,  Par-a-go'-ge,  di-aer  -e-sis,  sy  ri- 

ser -e-sis,  and  tme'-sis. 

I.  —  Aphseresis  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  initial  let- 
ters of  a  word  ;  as,  'gainst,  'gan,  'neath,  —  for  against,  began, 
beneath. 

II.  —  Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  an  expletive  syllable 
to  a  word  ;  as,  adown,  oppaid,  frestrown,   evanished,  ^/clad,  — 
for  down,  paid,  strown,  vanished,  clad. 

HI.  —  Syncope  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  middle  letters 
of  a  word  :  as,  med'cine,  for  medicine  ;  e'en,  for  even  ;  o'er, 
for  over  ;  conq'ring,  for  conquering  ;  se'nnight,  for  sevennight. 

IV.  —  Apocope  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  final  letters  of 
a  word  :  as,  tho',  for  though  ;  th',  for  the  ;  t'other,  for  the  other. 

V.  —  ParagOge  is  the  annexing  of  an  expletive  syllable 
to  a  word  :  as,  withouten,  for  without  ;  deary,  for  dear  ;  Johnny, 
for  John. 

VI.  —  Diaeresis  is  the  separating  of  two  vowels  that  might 
form  a  diphthong  :  as,  cooperate,  not  cooperate  ;  aeronaut,  not 
aeronaut  ;  orthoepy,  not  orthoepy. 

VIL  —  SynaereSIS  is  the  sinking  of  two  syllables  into 
one  :  as,  seest,  for  seest  ;  tacked,  for  tack-ed  ;  drowned,  for 
drown-ed. 

OBS.  —  When  a  vowel  is  entirely  suppressed  in  pronunciation  (whether 
retained  in  writing  or  not),  the  consonants  connected  with  it  fall  into 
another  syllable  ;  thus,  tried,  triest,  loved  or  lotfd,  lowest  or  lov'st,  are 
monosyllables  ;  except  in  solemn  discourse,  in  which  the  e  is  generally 
retained  and  made  vocal. 

Vlil.  —  Tmesis  is  the  inserting  of  a  word  between  the 
parts  of  a  compound  ;  as,  "  On  which  side  soever."  —  "  To  us 
ward."  —  "  To  God  ward," 


282  PROSODY. 

Figures  of  Syntax. 

A  figure  of  syntax  is  an  intentional  deviation  from 
the  ordinary  construction  of  words. 

The  principal  figures  of  syntax  are  five  ;  namely,  el-lip'" 
sis,  pie  -o-nasm,  syl-lep  -sis,  en-al  -la-ge,  and 
hyper  -ba-ton. 

Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  some  word  or  words  which 
are  necessary  to  complete  the  construction,  but  not  necessary 
to  convey  the  meaning.  Such  words  are  said  to  be  under- 
stood ;  because  they  are  received  as  belonging  to  the  sentence, 
though  they  are  not  uttered.* 

Almost  all  compound  sentences  are  more  or  less  elliptical.  There 
may  be  an  omission  of  any  of  the  parts  of  speech,  or  even  of  a  whole 
clause  ;  but  the  omission  of  articles  or  interjections  can  scarcely  consti- 
tute a  proper  ellipsis.  Examples :  — 

Of  the  Article;  as,  "A  man  and  [a]  wom0,n." — "The  day,  [the] 
month,  and  [the]  year." 

Of  the  Noun  ;  as,  "  The  common  [law]  and  the  statute  law."—"  The 
twelve  [apostles].1"—  "One  [book]  of  my  books." — "A  dozen  [bottles]  of 
wine." 

Of  the  Adjective;  as,  "There  are  subjects  proper  for  the  one,  and 
not  [proper]  for  the  other." — Kames. 

Of  the  Pronoun;  as,  "I  love  [him]  and  [/]  fear  him."— "The 
estates  [which]  we  own." 

Of  the  Verb  ;  as,  "  Who  did  this  ?  I "  [did  it].—11  To  whom  thus  Eve, 
yet  sinless  "  [spoke]. 

Of  the  Participle;  as,  "That  [being]  o'er,  they  part." 

*  There  can  never  be  an  ellipsis  of  any  thing  which  is  either  unnecessary  to  the  con- 
struction or  necessary  to  the  sense,  for  to  say  what  we  mean  and  nothing  more  never 
can  constitute  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  grammatical  construction  of  words.  As  a 
figure  of  Syntax,  therefore,  the  ellipsis  can  be  only  of  such  words  as  are  so  evidently  sug- 
gested to  the  reader,  that  the  writer  is  as  fully  answerable  for  them  as  if  he  had  written 
them.  To  suppose  an  ellipsis  where  there  is  none,  or  to  overlook  one  where  it  really 
occurs,  is  to  pervert  or  mutilate  the  text,  in  order  to  accommodate  it  to  the  parser's 
ignorance  of  the  principles  of  syntax.  There  never  can  be  either  a  general  uniformity 
or  a  self-consistency  in  our  methods  of  parsing,  or  in  our  notions  of  grammar,  till  the 
true  nature  of  an  ellipsis  is  clearly  ascertained  ;  so  that  the  writer  may  distinguish  it 
from  a  blundering  omission  that  impairs  the  sense,  and  the  reader  be  debarred  from  an 
arbitrary  insertion  of  \vha;  would  be  cumbrous  and  useless. 


FIGURES.  283 

Of  the  Adverb ;  as,  "He  spoke  [wisely]  and  acted  wisely." — "Ex- 
ceedingly great  and  [exceedingly}  powerful." 

Of  the  Conjunction ;  as,  "The  fruit  of  the  Spirit  is  love,  [and]  joy, 
[and]  peace,  [and]  long-suffering,  [and]  gentleness,  [and]  goodness, 
[and]  faith,  [and]  meekness,  [arid]  temperance." — Gal.  v.,  22.  The 
repetition  of  the  conjunction  is  called  Polysyndeton  ;  and  the  omission 
of  it,  Asyndeton. 

Of  the  Preposition;  as,  "[On]  this  day."—  "[In]  next  month."— 
"He  departed  [from]  this  life."— "He  gave  [to]  me  a  book."— "To 
walk  [through]  a  mile." 

Of  the  Interjection ;  as,  "Oh!  the  frailty,  [Oh/]  the  wickedness  of 
men." 

Of  a  Phrase  or  a  Clause  ;  as,  "  The  active  commonly  do  more  than  they 
are  bound  to  do ;  the  indolent,  [commonly  do]  less  "  [than  they  are  bound 
to  do]. 

Pleonasm  is  the  introduction  of  superfluous  words. 
This  figure  is  allowable  only,  when,  in  animated  discourse,  it 
abruptly  introduces  an  emphatic  word,  or  repeats  an  idea  to 
impress  it  more  strongly  : 

"  He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear !  "— "  All  ye  inhabitants  of 
the  world,  and  dwellers  on  the  earth/  "—  "  There  shall  not  be  left  one 
stone  upon  another,  that  shall  not  be  thrown  down." — "  I  know  thee  who 
thou  art."— Bible. 

A  pleonasm  is  sometimes  impressive  and  elegant,  but  an 
unemphatic  repetition  of  the  same  idea  is  one  of  the  worst 
faults  of  bad  writing. 

Syllepsis  is  agreement  formed  according  to  the  figura- 
tive sense  of  a  word,  or  the  mental  conception  of  the  thing 
spoken  of,  and  not  according  to  the  literal  or  common  use  of 
the  term;  it  is  therefore,  in  general,  connected  with  soni3 
figure  of  rhetoric : 

"The  Word  was  made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  us,  and  we  beheld  his 
glory."— John  i.,  14.  "Then  Philip  went  down  to  the  city  of  Samaria, 
and  preached  Christ  unto  them."— Acts  viii.,  5.  "While  Evening 
draws  her  crimson  curtains  round." — Thomson. 

En  all  age  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or  of  ono 
modification  for  another.  This  figure  borders  closely  upon 


284  PROSODY. 

solecism  ;  *  and,  for  the  stability  of  the  language,  it  should  be 
sparingly  indulged.  There  are,  however,  several  forms  of  it 
which  can  appeal  to  good  authority ;  as, 

"  You  know  that  you  are  Brutus  that  speak  this." — Shak. 
11  They  fall  successive  [ly],  and  successive  [Ij]  rise." — Pope. 
11  Than  whom  [who]  none  higher  sat." — Milton. 
"Sure  some  disaster  has  befell"  [befallen]. — Gay. 
"So  furious  was  that  onset's  shock, 
Destruction's  gates  at  once  unlock." — Hogg. 

Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words: 

"He  wanders  earth  around." — Cowper.  " Rings  the  world  with  the 
vain  stir." — Id.  "  Whom  therefore  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  1 
unto  you." — Acts. 

This  figure  is  much  employed  in  poetry.  A  judicious  use 
of  it  confers  harmony,  variety,  strength,  and  vivacity  upon 
composition.  But  care  should  be  taken  lest  it  produce  am- 
biguity or  obscurity. 

Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

A  figure  of  rhetoric  is  an  intentional  deviation  from 
the  ordinary  application  of  words.  Some  figures  of  this 
kind  are  commonly  called  Tropes,  i.  e.,  turns. 

Numerous  departures  from  perfect  simplicity  of  diction  occur  in  al- 
most every  kind  of  composition.  They  are  mostly  founded  on  some 
similitude  or  relation  of  things,  which,  by  the  power  of  imagination,  is 
rendered  conducive  to  ornament  or  illustration. 

The  principal  figures  of  rhetoric  are  fourteen ;  namely, 
Sim'-i-le,  Met'-a-phor,  Al'-le-gor-y,  Me-torT- 
y-my,  Syn-ec'-do-che,  Hy-per'-bo-le,  Vis'-ion, 
A-pos'-tro-phe,  Per-son'-i-fi-ca'-tion,  Er-o- 
te'-sis,  Ec-pho-ne'-sis,  An-tith'-e-sis,  Cli- 
max, and  I'-ro-ny. 

*  Deviations  of  this  kind  are,  in  general,  to  be  considered  solecisms ;  otherwise  the 
rules  of  grammar  would  be  of  no  use  or  authority.  There  are,  however,  some  changes  of 
this  kind,  which  the  grammarian  is  not  competent  to  condemn,  though  they  do  not 
accord  with  the  ordinary  principles  of  construction. 


FIGURES.  285 

A  Simile  is  a  simple  and  express  comparison,  and  is  gen- 
erally introduced  by  like,  as,  or  so : 

"  At  first,  like  thunder's  distant  tone, 

The  rattling  din  came  rolling  on." — Hogg. 
"  Man,  like  the  generous  vine,  supported  lives ; 
The  strength  he  gains,  is  from  th'  embrace  he  gives." — Pope. 

A  metaphor  is  a  figure  that  expresses  the  resemblance 
of  two  objects  by  applying  either  the  name,  or  some  attribute 
adjunct,  or  action  of  the  one,  directly  to  the  other : 

"  His  eye  was  morning's  brightest  ray." — Hogg. 

"  Angler  in  the  tides  of  fame."—  Id. 

"Beside  him  sleeps  the  warrior's  bow." — Langhome. 

"  Wild*fancies  in  his  moody  brain, 
Gambol 'd  unbridled  and  unbound." — 3ogg. 

"Speechless,  and  fix'd  in  all  the  death  of  wo." — Thorn. 

An  allegory  is  a  continued  narration  of  fictitious  events, 
designed  to  represent  and  illustrate  important  realities.  Thus 
the  Psalmist  represents  the  Jewish  nation  under  the  symbol 
of  a  vine : 

"Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt:  thou  hast  cast  out  the 
heathen  and  planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room  before  it,  and  didst 
cause  it  to  take  deep  root ;  and  it  filled  the  land.  The  hills  were 
covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the  boughs  thereof  were  like  the 
goodly  cedars."— Ps.  Ixxx.,  8. 

OBS. — The  allegory,  agreeably  to  the  foregoing  definition  of  it,  includes 
most  of  those  similitudes  which  in  the  Scriptures  are  called  parables  ; 
it  includes  also  the  better  sort  of  fables.  The  term  allegory  is  sometimes 
applied  to  a  true  history  in  which  something  else  is  intended  than  is 
contained  in  the  words  literally  taken.  [See  Gal.  iv.,  24.]  In  the 
Scriptures  the  term  fable  denotes  an  idle  and  groundless  story.  [See 
1  Tim.  iv.,  1 ;  and  2  Pet.  i.,  16.] 

A  metonymy  is  a  change  of  names.  It  is  founded  on 
some  such  relation  as  that  of  cause  and  effect,  of  subject  and 
adjunct,  of  place  and  inhabitant,  of  container  and  thing  contained, 
or  of  sign  and  thing  signified : 

"God  is  our  salvation;"  i.e.,  Saviour.— "  He  was  the  sigh  of  her 
secret  soul ;  "  i.e.,  the  youth  she  loved. — "  They  smote  the  city  ;  "  i.e., 
citizens. — "  My  son,  give  me  thy  heart ;  "  i.e.,  affection. — "  The 
not  depart  from  Judah  ;  "  i.e.,  kingly  power, 


286  PROSODY. 

Synecdoche  is  the  naming  of  the  whole  for  a  part,  or 
of  a  part  for  the  whole ;  as,  "This  roof  [i.e.,  house]  protects 
you." — "Now  the  year  [i.e.,  summer]  is  beautiful." 

Hyperbole  is  an  extravagant  exaggeration,  in  which  the 
imagination  is  indulged  beyond  the  sobriety  of  truth  : 
"The  sky  shrunk  upward  with  unusual  dread, 
And  trembling  Tiber  eKtfd  beneath  his  bed." — Dryden. 

Vision,  or  Imagery,  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker 
represents  the  objects  of  his  imagination  as  actually  before 
his  eyes,  and  present  to  his  senses : 

"  I  see  the  dagger-crest  of  Mar ! 
I  see  the  Moray's  silver  star 
Wave  o'er  the  cloud  of  Saxon  war, 
That  up  the  lake  comes  winding  far !  " — Scott. 

Apostrophe  is  a  turning  from  the  regular  course  of  the 
subject,  into  an  animated  address ;  as,  "  Death  is  swallowed 
up  in  victory.  O  Death !  where  is  thy  sting  ?  O  Grave ! 
where  is  thy  victory  ?  " — 1  Cor.  xv. 

Personification  is  a  figure  by  which,  in  imagination, 
Tre  ascribe  intelligence  and  personality  to  unintelligent  beings 
or  abstract  qualities : 

"  The  Worm,  aware  of  his  intent, 

Harangued  him  thus,  right  eloquent." — Cowper. 
"  Lo,  steel-clad  War  his  gorgeous  standard  rears  !  " — Rogers. 
11  Hark  !    Truth  proclaims,  thy  triumphs  cease." — Id. 
ErotesiS  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  adopts  the  form 
of  interrogation,  not  to  express  a  doubt,  but,  in  general,  con- 
fidently to  assert  the  reverse  of  what  is  asked  : 

"  Hast  thou  an  arm  like  God  ?  or  canst  thou  thunder  with  a  voice  like 
him  ?  " — Job  xl.  "  He  that  planted  the  ear,  shall  he  not  hear  ?  he  that 
formed  the  eye,  shall  he  not  see  ?  " — Ps.  xciv. 

Ecphonesis  ie  a  pathetic  exclamation,  denoting  some 
violent  emotion  of  the  mind  : 

"0  liberty  !— O  sound  once  delightful  to  every  Roman  ear  I — O  sacred 
privilege  of  Roman  citizenship  ! — once  sacred — now  trampled  upon  !  " — 
Cicero.  "  O  that  I  had  wings  like  a  dove  !  for  then  would  I  fly  away 
and  be  at  rest !  "— Ps.  lv.,  6. 


FIGURES.  287 

Antithesis  is  a  placing  of  things  in  opposition  to  heighten 
their  effect  by  contrast : 

"  Contrasted  faults  through  all  his  manners  reign ; 
Though  poor,  luxurious  ;  though  submissive,  vain  ; 
Though  grave,  yet  trifling  ;  zealous,  yet  untrue  ; 
And  e'en  in  penance,  planning  sins  anew." — Goldsmith. 

Climax  is  a  figure  in  which  the  sense  is  made  to  advance 
by  successive  steps,  to  rise  gradually  to  what  is  more  and  more 
important  and  interesting,  or  to  descend  to  what  is  more  and 
more  minute  and  particular  : 

"  And  beside  this,  giving  all  diligence,  add  to  your  faith,  virtue  ;  and 
to  virtue,  knowledge  ;  and  to  knowledge,  temperance  ;  and  to  temper- 
ance, patience ;  antl  to  patience,  godliness  ;  and  to  godliness,  brotherly 
kindness  ;  and  to  brotherly  kindness,  charity." — 2  Peter  1. 

Irony  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  sneeringly  utters 
the  direct  reverse  of  what  he  intends  shall  be  understood : 

"  We  have,  to  be  sure,  great  reason  to  believe  the  modest  man  would 
not  ask  him  for  a  debt,  when  he  pursues  his  life." — Cicero. 

Exercises— Figures. 
Praxis  Vl.-Prosodical. 

In  the  Sixth  Praxis,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil  to  point  out  and  explain 
the  several  Figures  of  Orthography,  of  Etymology,  of  Syntax,  and 
of  Rhetoric;  to  define  each  ;  and  to  change  the  passage  into  the  ordi- 
nary style  or  expression.  The  pupil  may  also  be  exercised  on  these 
selections,  in  the  rules  of  Punctuation,  and  in  the  principles  of  Utter- 
ance and  Versification. 

I. — Figures  of  Orthography. 

* '  Fery  goot :  I  will  make  a  prief  of  it  in  my  note-book  ;  and  we  will 
afterwards  'ork  upon  the  cause  with  as  great  discreetly  as  we  can. " — SJiak. 

"  Vat  is  you  sing  ?  I  do  not  like  dese  toys.  Pray  you,  go  and  vetcfi  me 
in  my  closet  un  boitier  verd ;  a  box,  a  green-a  box.  Do  intend  vat  I 
speak  ?  a  green-a  box. " — Id. 

11 1  ax'd  you  what  you  had  to  sell.  I  am  fitting  out  a  wessd  for  Wenice, 
loading  her  with  warivus  keinds  of  prowisions,  and  wittualling  her  for 
a  long  woyage  ;  and  I  want  several  undred  weight  of  weal,  wenison,  etc., 
frith  plenty  of  inyons  an4  vinegar^  for  the  preserwatwn  of  eaJljh," 


288  PROSODY. 

"  None  [else  are]  so  desperately  mZ?,  as  they  that  may  bee  good  and 
will  not :  or  have  beene  good  and  are  not. " — Rev.  John  Rogers,  1620.  "  A 
Carpenter  finds  his  work  as  hee  left  it,  but  a  Minister  shall  find  his  sett 
hack.  You  need  preach  continually. " 

*'  Here  whilom  ligg'd  th'  Esopus  of  his  age, 
i  But  call'd  by  Fame,  in  soul  ypricked  deep." — Thomson. 

"  It  was  a  fountain  of  Nepenthe  rare, 
^Yhence,  as  Dan  Homer  sings,  huge  pleasaunce  grew." — Id. 

II.— Figures  of  Etymology. 

Bend  'gainst  the  steepy  hill  thy  breast, 
Burst  down  like  torrent  from  its  crest. — Scott. 
'Tis  mine  to  teach  th'  inactive  hand  to  reap 
Kind  nature's  bounties,  o'er  the  globe  diffused. — Dyer 
Alas !  alas !  how  impotently  true 
TK  aerial  pencil  forms  the  scene  anew. 
Here  a  deformed  monster  joy'd  to  won, 
Which  on  fell  rancour  ever  was  ybent. — Lloyd. 
Withouten  trump  was  proclamation  made. — Thomson. 
The  gentle  knight,  who  saw  their  rueful  case, 
Let  fall  adown  his  silver  beard  some  tears. 
"  Certes,"  quoth  he,  "  it  is  not  e'en  in  grace. 
T'  undo  the  past  and  eke  your  broken  years." — Id. 
Vain  tampering  has  but  foster'd  his  disease  ; 
'Tis  desp'rate,  and  he  sleeps  the  sleep  of  death. — Cowper. 
I  have  a  pain  upon  my  forehead  here — 
Why  that's  with  watching ;  'twill  away  again. — Shakspeare. 
I'tt  to  the  woods,  among  the  happier  brutes  ; 
Come,  let's  away  ;  hark  !  the  shrill  horn  resounds. — Smith. 
What  prayer  and  supplication  soever  be  made. — Bible. 
By  the  grace  of  God  we  have  had  our  conversation  in  the  world,  and 
more  abundantly  to  you  ward. — Id. 

III.— Figures  of  Syntax. 

ELLIPSIS. 

And  now  he  faintly  kens  the  bounding  fawn, 

A  [ — ]  villager  [ — ]  abroad  at  early  toil. — Seattle. 

The  cottage  curs  at  [ — ]  early  pilgrim  bark. — Id. 

'Tis  granted,  and  no  plainer  truth  appears, 

Our  most  important  [ — ]  are  our  earliest  years, — Cowper. 


FIGURES.  289 

To  earn  her  aid,  with  fix'd  and  anxious  eye, 

He  looks  on  nature's  [ — ]  and  on  fortune's  course ; 

Too  much  in  vain. — Akenside. 

True  dignity  is  his,  whose  tranquil  mind 

Virtue  has  rais'd  above  the  things  [ — ]  below ; 

Who,  ev'ry  hope  and  [— ]  fear  to  Heav'n  resign'd, 

Shrinks  not,  though  Fortune  aim  her  deadliest  blow. — Beattie. 

For  longer  in  that  paradise  to  dwell, 

The  law  [ — ]  I  gave  to  nature,  him  forbids. — Milton. 

So  little  mercy  shows  [ — ]  who  needs  so  much. — Cowper. 

Bliss  is  the  same  [ — ]  in  subject,  as  [ — ]  in  king ; 

In  [ — ]  who  obtain  defence,  and  [ — ]  who  defend. — Pope. 

Man  made  for  kings  !  those  optics  are  but  dim 

That  tell  yon  so— say  rather,  they  [ — ]  for  him. — Cowper. 

Man  may  dismiss  compassion  from  his  heart, 

But  God  will  never  [ ].—/<£ 

Mortals  whose  pleasures  are  their  only  care, 

First  wish  to  be  impos'd  on,  and  then  are  [ — ]. — Id. 

Vigor  [ — ]  from  toil,  from  trouble  patience  grows. — Beattie. 

Where  now  the  rill  melodious,  [ — ]  pure,  and  cool, 

And  meads,  with  life,  and  mirth,  and  beauty  crown'd  ? — Id. 

How  dead  the  vegetable  kingdom  lies ! 

How  dumb  the  tuneful  [ ]  ! — Thomson. 

Self-love  and  Reason  to  one  end  aspire, 

Pain  [ — ]  their  aversion,  pleasure  [ — ]  their  desire  ; 

But  greedy  that  its  object  would  devour, 

This  [ — ]  taste  the  honey,  and  not  wound  the  flower. — Pope. 

PLEONASM. 

According  to  their  deeds,  accordingly  he  will  repay  ;  fury  to  his  adver- 
saries, recompense  to  his  enemies. — Bible. 
My  head  is  filled  with  dew,  and  my  locks  with  the  drops  of  the  night. — 

Solomon's  Song  v. ,  2. 

Thou  hast  chastised  me,  and  I  was  chastised,  as  a  bullock  unaccustomed 
to  the  yoke  :  turn  thou  me,  and  I  shall  be  turned  ;  for  thou  art  the 
Lord  my  God. — Jer.  xxxi.,  18. 

Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field  how  they  grow. — Matt,  vi.,  28. 
He  that  glorieth,  let  him  glory  in  the  Lord.— 2  Cor.  x.,  17. 
He  too  is  witness,  noblest  of  the  train 
That  waits  on  man,  the  flight-performing  Jwrse. — Cowper. 
19 


290  PROSODY. 

SYLLEPSIS. 

Thou  art  Simon  the  son  of  Jona :  thou  shalt  be  called  Cephas ;  which 

is,  by  interpretation,  a  stone. — John  i.,  42. 
Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts:   " Behold  I  will  break  the  bow  of  Elam, 

the  chief  of  their  might." — Jer.  xlix.,  35. 

Behold  I  lay  in  Zion  a  stumbling-stone  and  rock  of  offense  ;  and  whoso- 
ever belie veth  on  him  shall  not  be  ashamed. — Rom.  ix.,  33. 
Thus  Conscience  pleads  her  cause  within  the  breast, 
Though  long-rebell'd  against,  not  yet  suppress'd. — Cowper. 
Knowledge  is  proud  that  he  has  learned  so  much  ; 
Wisdom  is  humble  that  he  knows  no  more.  — Id. 

For  those  the  race  of  Israel  oft  forsook 
Their  living  strength,  and  unfrequented  left 
His  righteous  altar,  bowing  lowly  down 
To  bestial  gods.— Milton. 

ENALLAGE. 

Let  me  tell  you,  Cassius,  you  yourself 

Are  much  condemned  to  have  an  itching  palm, 

To  sell  and  mart  your  offices  for  gold. — Shakspeare. 

Come,  Philomelus ;  let  us  instant  go, 

O'erturn  his  bow'rs,  and  lay  his  castle  low. — Thomson,. 

Then  palaces  shall  rise  ;  the  joyful  son 

Shall  finish  what  the  short-lived  sire  begun. — Pope. 

Such  was  that  temple  built  by  Solomon, 

Than  whom  none  richer  reign'd  o'er  Israel. — G.  Brown, 

He  spoke :  with  fatal  eagerness  we  burn, 

And  quit  the  shores,  undestin'd  to  return. — Day. 

Still  as  he  pass'd,  the  nations  he  sublimes. — Thomson. 

Sometimes,  with  early  morn,  he  mounted  gay. — Id, 

HYPERBATON. 

Such  resting  found  the  sole  of  unblest  feet. — Milton. 
Yet,  though  successless,  will  the  toil  delight. — Thomson. 
Where,  'midst  the  changeful  scen'ry  ever  new, 
Fancy  a  thousand  wondrous  forms  descries. — Seattle. 
Yet  so  much  bounty  is  in  God,  such  grace, 
That  who  advance  his  glory,  not  their  own, 
Them  he  himself  to  glory  will  advance. — Milton. 


FIGUKES.  291 

But  apt  the  mind  or  fancy  is  to  rove 

Uncheck'd,  and  of  her  roving  is  no  end. — Id. 

No  quick  reply  to  dubious  questions  make ; 

Suspense  and  caution  still  prevent  mistake. — Denham. 

IV.— Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

SIMILE. 
Human  greatness  is  short  and  transitory,  as  the  odor  of  incense  in  the 

fire. — Dr.  Johnson. 

Terrestial  happiness  is  of  short  continuance :  tlie  brightness  of  the  flame 
is  wasting  its  fuel,  the  fragrant  flower  is  passing  away  in  its  own 
odors. — Id. 

Thy  nod  is  as  the  earthquake  that  sJiakes  the  mountains  ;  and  thy  smile, 
as  the  dawn  of  the  vernal  day. — Id. 

Plants  raised  with  tenderness  are  seldom  strong  ; 
Man's  coltish  disposition  asks  the  thong ; 
And  without  discipline,  the  fav'rite  child, 
Like  a  neglected  forester,  runs  wild. — Gowper. 

METAPHOR. 

Cathmon,  thy  name  is  a  pleasant  gale.  —  Ossian. 
Rolled  into  himself  he  flew,  wide  on  the  bosom  of  winds.     The  old  oak 

felt  his  departure,  and  shook  its  whistling  head. — Id. 
Carazan  gradually  lost  the  inclination  to  do  good,  as  he  acquired  the 
power ;  and  as  the  hand  of  time  scattered  snow  upon  his  head,  the 
freezing  influence  extended  to  his  bosom. — Hawkesworth. 
The  sun  grew  weary  of  gilding  the  palaces  of  Morad ;  the  clouds  of  sor- 
row gathered  round  his  head ;  and  the  tempest  of  Jiatred  roared 
about  his  dwelling.  — Dr.  Johnson. 

The  tree  of  knowledge,  blasted  by  disputes, 
Produces  sapless  leaves  instead  of  fruits. — Denham. 

ALLEGORY. 

"But  what  think  ye  ? — A  certain  man  had  two  sons  ;  and  he  came  to 
the  first,  and  said,  '  Son,  go  work  to-day  in  my  vineyard. '  He  answered 
and  said,  '  I  will  not ' ;  but  afterward  he  repented,  and  went.  And  he 
came  to  the  second,  and  said  likewise.  And  he  answered  and  said, 
*  I  go,  sir :  '  and  went  not.  Whether  of  them  twain  did  the  will  of  his 
father  ? "  They  say  unto  him,  "  The  first."— Matt,  xxi.,  28. 

METONYMY. 

Swifter  than  a  whirlwind,  flies  the  leaden  death. — Hervey. 
"  Be  all  the  dead  forgot,"  said  Foldath's  bursting  wrath.     "  Did  not  I 
fail  in  the  field  ?  "—Ossian. 


292  PROSODT. 

Their  furrow  oft  the  stubborn  glebe  has  broke. — Gray. 

Firm  in  his  love,  resistless  in  his  hate, 

His  arm  is  conquest,  and  his  frown  is  fate. — Day. 

At  length  the  world,  renew'd  by  calm  repose, 

Was  strong  for  toil;  the  dappled  morn  arose. — ParnefL 

What  modes  of  sight  betwixt  each  wide  extreme, 

The  mole's  dim  curtain  and  the  lynx's  beam  ! 

Of  hearing,  from  the  life  that  fills  the  flood, 

To  that  which  warbles  through  the  vernal  wood ! — Pope.  \ 

SYNECDOCHE. 

Twas  then  his  threshold  first  receiv'd  a  guest. — Parnett. 
For  yet  by  swains  alone  the  world  he  knew, 
Whose  feet  came  wand'ring  o'er  the  nightly  dew. — Id. 
Flush'd  by  the  spirit  of  the  genial  year, 
Now  from  the  virgin's  cheek  a  fresher  bloom 
Shoots,  less  and  less,  the  live  carnation  round. — Thomson. 

HYPERBOLE. 

I  saw  their  chief,  tall  as  a  rock  of  ice ;  his  spear,  the  blasted  fir ;  his 
shield,  the  rising  moon  ;  he  sat  on  the  shore,  like  a  cloud  of  mist 
on  the  hill.— Oman. 

At  which  the  universal  host  up  sent 

A  shout  that  tore  Hell's  concave,  and  beyond 

Frighted  the  reign  of  Chaos  and  old  Night. — Milton. 

Will  all  great  Neptune's  ocean  wash  this  blood 

Clean  from  my  hand  ?     No ;  this  my  hand  will  rather 

The  multitudinous  seas  incarnadine, 

Making  the  green  one  red. — Shakspeare. 

Endless  tears  flow  down  in  streams. — /! 


VISION. 

How  mighty  is  their  defense  who  reverently  trust  in  the  arm  of  God  ! 
How  powerfully  do  they  contend  who  fight  with  lawful  weapons ! 
Hark !  'tis  the  voice  of  eloquence,  pouring  forth  the  living  energies  of 
the  soul ;  pleading,  with  generous  indignation,  the  cause  of  injured 
humanity  against  lawless  might,  and  reading  the  awful  destiny  that 
awaits  the  oppressor! — I  see  the  stern  countenance  of  despotism  over- 
awed !  I  see  the  eye  fallen  that  kindled  the  elements  of  war  I  I  see 
the  brow  relaxed  that  scowled  defiance  at  hostile  thousands !  I  see  the 
knees  tremble  that  trod  with  firmness  the  embattled  field  !  Fear  has 
entered  that  heart  which  ambition  had  betrayed  into  violence  I  The 


FIGURES.  293 

tyrant  feels  himself  a  man,  and  subject  to  the  weakness  of  humanity ! 
— Behold !  and  tell  me,  is  that  power  contemptible  which  can  thus  find 
access  to  the  sternest  hearts  ? — G.  Brown. 

APOSTROPHE. 

Yet  still  they  breathe  destruction,  still  go  on 
Inhumanly  ingenious  to  find  out 
New  pains  for  life,  new  terrors  for  the  grave  ; 
Artificers  of  death  !     Still  monarchs  dream 
Of  universal  empire  growing  up 
From  universal  ruin.     Blast  the  design, 
Great  God  of  Hosts!  nor  let  thy  creatures  fall 
Unpitied  victims  at  Ambition's  shrine. — Porteus. 

PERSONIFICATION. 
Hail,  sacred  Polity,  by  Freedom  rear'd  ! 

Hail,  sacred  Freedom,  when  by  Law  restrain'd  I 
Without  you,  what  were  man  ?     A  grov'ling  herd, 

In  darkness,  wretchedness,  and  want  enchain'd. — Seattle. 
Let  cheerful  Memory,  from  her  purest  cells, 

Lead  forth  a  goodly  train  of  Virtues  fair, 
Cherish'd  in  early  youth,  now  paying  back 

With  tenfold  usury  the  pious  care.— Porteus. 

EROTESIS. 

He  that  chastiseth  the  heathen,  shall  not  he  correct  ?  he  that  teacheth 
man  knowledge,  shall  not  he  know  ? — Psalms  xciv. ,  10. 

Can  the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin,  or  the  leopard  his  spots  ?  then 
may  ye  also  do  good,  that  are  accustomed  to  do  evil. — Jer.  xiii.,  33. 

ECPHONESIS. 

O  that  my  head  were  waters,  and  mine  eyes  a  fountain  of  tears,  that  I 
might  weep  day  and  night  for  the  slain  of  the  daughter  of  my  people  ! 
O  that  I  had  in  the  wilderness  a  lodging  place  of  way-faring  men,  that  I 
might  leave  my  people,  and  go  from  them ! — Jeremiah  ix.,  1. 

ANTITHESIS. 

On  this  side  modesty  is  engaged  ;  on  that,  impudence  :  on  this,  chas- 
tity ;  on  that,  lewdness :  on  this,  integrity ;  on  that,  fraud :  on  this, 
piety  ;  on  that,  prof  aneness  :  on  this,  constancy  ;  on  that,  fickleness ; 
on  this,  honor ;  on  that,  baseness :  on  this,  moderation ;  on  that,  un- 
bridled passion. — Cicero. 

She,  from  the  rending  earth,  and  bursting  skies, 

Saw  gods  descend,  and  fiends  infernal  rise  ; 

Here  fix'd  the  dreadful,  there  the  blest  abodes ; 

Fear  made  her  devils,  and  weak  hope  her  gods. — Pop*. 


294  PROSODY. 

CLIMAX. 

Virtuous  actions  are  necessarily  approved  by  the  awakened  conscience ; 
and  when  they  are  approved,  they  are  commended  to  practice ;  and 
when  they  are  practiced,  they  become  easy ;  and  when  they  become 
easy,  they  afford  pleasure  ;  and  when  they  afford  pleasure,  they  are 
done  frequently ;  and  when  they  are  done  frequently,  they  are  con- 
firmed by  habit ;  and  confirmed  habit  is  a  kind  of  second  nature. 

IRONY. 

And  it  came  to  pass  at  noon,  that  Elijah  mocked  them,  and  said,  "Cry 
aloud ;  for  he  is  a  god  :  either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is 
in  [on]  a  journey,  or  peradventure  he  sleepeth,  and  must  be  awaked  I  " 
— 1  Kings  xviii. ,  27. 

Some  lead  a  life  unblamable  and  just, 
Their  own  dear  virtue  their  unshaken  trust ; 
They  never  sin — or  if  (as  all  offend) 
Some  trivial  slips  their  daily  walk  attend, 
The  poor  are  near  at  hand,  the  charge  is  small, 
A  slight  gratuity  atones  for  all. — Cowper. 


IV.— VERSIFICATION. 
Versification  is  the  art  of  arranging  words  into  lines 
of  correspondent  length,  so  as  to  produce  harmony  by  the 
regular  alternation  of  syllables  differing  in  quantity. 

Quantity. 

The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  the  relative  portion  of 
time  occupied  in  uttering  it.  In  poetry,  every  syllable  is  con- 
sidered to  be  either  long  or  short.  A  long  syllable  is  reckoned 
to  be  equal  to  two  short  ones. 

OBS.  1. — The  quantity  of  a  syllable  does  not  depend  on  the  sound  of 
the  vowel  or  diphthong,  but  principally  on  the  degree  of  accentual  force 
with  which  the  syllable  is  uttered,  whereby  a  greater  or  less  portion  of 
time  is  employed.  The  open  vowel  sounds  are  those  which  are  the  most 
easily  protracted,  yet  they  often  occur  in  the  shortest  and  feeblest 
syllables. 

OBS.  2. —Most  monosyllables  are  variable,  and  maybe  made  either 
long  or  short,  as  suits  the  meter,  or  rhythm.  In  words  of  greater  length, 
the  accented  syllable  is  always  long  ;  and  a  syllable  immediately  before 
or  after  that  which  is  accented,  is  always  short. 


VERSIFICATION. 

Rhyme. 

Rhyme  is  the  similarity  of  sound  between  the  last  syl- 
lables of  different  lines  or  half  lines.  Blank  verse  is  verse 
without  rhyme. 

OBS. — The  principal  rhyming  syllables  are  almost  always  long.  Double 
rhyme  adds  one  short  syllable ;  triple  rhyme,  two.  Such  syllables  are 
redundant  in  iambic  and  anapestic  verses. 

Poetic  Feet. 

A  line  Of  poetry  consists  of  successive  combinations  of 
syllables,  called  feet.  A  poetic  foot,  in  English,  consists 
either  of  two  os-of  three  syllables. 

The  principal  English  feet  are  the  Iambus,  the  Tro- 
chee, the  Anapest,  and  the  Dactyl. 

The  Iambus |  or  lamb,  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of 
a  short  syllable  and  a  long  one  ;  as,  betray,  confess. 

The  Trochee,  or  Choree,  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of 
a  long  syllable  and  a  short  one  ;  as,  hateful,  pettish. 

The  Anapest  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  two  short 
syllables  and  one  long  one  ;  as,  contravene,  acquiesce. 

The  Dactyl  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  one  long  sylla- 
ble and  two  short  ones  ;  as,  laborer,  possible. 

We  have,   accordingly,   four  principal   kinds  of  verse,    or 

poetic  measure;  Iambic,  Trochaic,  Anapestic,  and 
Dactylic. 

OBS.  1. — The  more  pure  these  several  kinds  are  preserved,  the  more 
exact  and  complete  is  the  chime  of  the  verse.  But  poets  generally  in- 
dulge some  variety  ;  not  so  much,  however,  as  to  confound  the  drLt  ol 
the  rythmical  pulsations. 

OBS.  2. — Among  the  occasional  diversifications  of  meter,  are  sometimes 
found,  or  supposed,  sundry  other  feet,  which  are  called  secondary  :  as, 
the  Spondee,  a  foot  of  two  long  syllables  ;  the  Pyrrhic,  of  two  short ;  the 
Moloss,  of  three  long  syllables  ;  the  Tribrach,  of  three  short ;  the  Am- 
phibrach, a  long  syllable  with  a  short  one  on  each  side ;  the  Amphimac, 
Amphimacer,  or  Cretic,  a  short  syllable  with  a  long  one  on  each  side ; 
the  Bacchy,  a  short  syllable  and  two  long  ones  ;  the  Antibacchy,  or  Hy- 
pobacchy,  two  long  syllables  and  a  short  one.  Yet  few,  if  any,  of  these 


296  PKOSODY. 

feet,  are  really  necessary  to  a  sufficient  explanation  of  English  verse  ;  and 
the  adopting  of  so  many  is  liable  to  the  great  objection,  that  we  thereby 
produce  different  modes  of  measuring  the  same  lines. 

OBS.  3. — Sometimes,  also,  verses  are  variegated  by  what  is  called  the 
pedal  casura,  or  cesure  (i.  e. ,  cutting),  which  is  a  single  long  syllable 
counted  by  itself  as  a  foot.  For,  despite  the  absurd  suggestions  of  many 
grammarians  and  prosodists  to  the  contrary,  all  metrical  deficiencies  and 
redundancies  embrace  nothing  but  short  syllables,  and  the  number  of 
long  ones  in  a  line  is  almost  always  the  number  of  feet  which  compose 
it;  as, 

"  Keeping  |  time,  \  time,  \  time, 
In  a  |  sort  of  |  Runic  rhyme." — E.  A.  Poe. 

Scanning. 

Scanning,  or  Scansion,  is  the  dividing  of  verses 
into  the  feet  which  compose  them,  according  to  the  several 
orders  of  poetic  numbers,  or  the  different  kinds  of  meter. 

OBS. — When  a  syllable  is  wanting,  the  verse  is  said  to  be  catalectic  ; 
when  the  measure  is  exact,  the  line  is  acatalectic  ;  when  there  is  a  re- 
dundant syllable,  it  forms  hypermeter,  or  a  line  hypercatalectic. 

Order  I.— Iambic  Verse. 

In  iambic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  even  syllables, 
and  the  odd  ones  are  short.  It  consists  of  the  following 
measures  : — 

Measure  1st. — Iambic  of  Eight  Feet,  or  Octometer  : 

"O  all  |  ye"  peo|-ple",  clap  |  your  hands,  |  and  with  |  triumphant  voic|- 

6s  Sing  ; 

No  force  |  the  might  ]-y  pow'r  |  withstands  |  of  God  |  the  uj-niversj-al 
King." 

OBS. — Each  couplet  of  this  verse  is  now  commonly  reduced  to,  or  ex- 
changed for,  a  simple  stanza  of  four  tetrameter  lines  ;  thus, — 
"The  hour  |  is  come  |  — the  cherl-ish'd  hour, 

When  from  |  the  busj-y  world  |  set  free, 
I  seek  j  at  length  |  my  lone|-ly  bower, 

And  muse  |  in  si;-lent  thought  \  on  thee." — Hook. 

Measure  2d. — Iambic  of  Seven  Feet,  or  Heptameter  : 
"The*  Lord  |  descend |-e"d  from  |  ftbove,  |  and  bow'd  |  the  heav|-6na 
high." 


VERSIFICATION.  297 

OBS.— Modern  poets  have  divided  this  kind  of  verse,  into  alternate 
lines  of  four  and  of  three  feet ;  thus, — 

"O  blind  |  to  each  |  Indul  |-gent  aim 

Of  pow'r  |  supreme  |-ly  wise, 
Who  fan|-cy  hap|-piness  |  in  aught 
The  hand  |  of  heav'n  |  denies !  " 

Measure  3d.  — Iambic  of  Six  Feet,  or  Hexameter : 
"Thy  realm  |  forev|-er  lasts,  |  thy  5wn  |  M6ssi|-ah  reigns." 

OBS. — This  is  the  Alexandrine  ;  it  is  seldom  used  except  to  complete 
a  stanza  in  an  ode,  or  occasionally  to  close  a  period  in  heroic  rhyme. 
French  heroics  are  similar  to  this. 

Measure  ±th. — Iambic  of  Five  Feet,  or  Pentameter : 
"  For  praise  |  t5o  dearj-l^  I5v'd  |  or  warm|-ly  sought, 

Enfee|-bles  all  |  inter  |-nal  strength  |  of  thought." 
"  With  solemn  ad|-ora|-tion  down  |  they  cast 

Their  crowns,  |  inwove  |  with  amj-arant  |  and  gold." 

OBS.  1.— This  is  the  regular  English  heroic.  It  is,  perhaps,  the 
only  measure  suitable  for  blank  verse. 

OBS.  2. — The  elegiac  stanza  consists  of  four  heroics  rhyming  al- 
ternately; as, 

"Enough  |  has  Heav'n  |  indulg'd  |  of  joy  |  below, 

To  tempt  |  our  tarj-riance  in  |  this  lov'd  |  retreat; 
Enough  |  has  Heav'n  |  ordain'd  |  of  use|-ful  wo, 
To  make  |  us  lang|-uish  for  |  a  hap | -pier  seat." 

Measure  5th. — Iambic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter : 
"The  joys  |  above  |  are  un | -derstood 
And  rel|-ish'd  on|-ly  by  |  the  good." 

Measure  6th. — Iambic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter : 
"  Blue  lightl-nlngs  singe  |  the  waves, 
And  thun|-der  rends  |  the  rock." 

Measure  7th. — Iambic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter : 

"Their  love  |  and  awe 

Supply  |  the  law." 

Measure  Sth. — Iambic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer : 
"  How  bright, 
The  light !  " 

OBS.  1. — Lines  of  fewer  than  seven  syllables  are  seldom  found,  ex- 
cept in  connection  with  longer  verses. 

OBS.  2. — In  iambic  verse,  the  first  foot  is  often  varied,  by  introducing 
a  trochee ;  as, 

"Pfanete  |  and  suns  1  rim  law] -less  through  |  thS  skj." 


298  PROSODY. 

OBS.  3.  —  By  a  synaeresis  of  the  two  short  syllables,  or  perhaps  by  mere 
substitution,  an  anapest  may  sometimes  be  employed  for  an  iambus  ;  or 
a  dactyl,  for  a  trochee  ;  as, 

"  O'er  man\-y  a/r0|-zen,  man|-#  afi\-er-y  Alp." 


Order  II.  —  Trochaic  Verse. 

In  trochaic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  odd  sylla- 
bles, and  the  even  ones  are  short.  Single-rhymed  trochaic 
omits  the  final  short  syllable,  that  it  may  end  with  a  long  one. 
This  kind  of  verse  is  the  same  as  iambic  would  be  without 
the  initial  short  syllable.  Iambics  and  trochaics  often  occur 
in  the  same  poem. 

Measure  1st.  —  Trochaic  of  Eight  Feet,  or  Octometer  : 
"Once  up  |  -on  a  |  midnight  |  dreary,  |  while  I  |  pondered,  '  freak  and 

weary, 

Over  |  many  a  \  quaint  and  |  curious  \  volume  |  of  for]  -gotten  |  lore, 
While  I  |  nodded,  |  nearly  |  napping,  j  sudden  |-ly  there  |  came  a  | 

tapping, 

As  of  |  some  one  |  gently  |  rapping,  |  rapping  |  at  my  |  chamber 
|  door." 

Measure  2cf.  —  Trochaic  of  Seven  Feet,  or  Heptameter  : 
"  Hasten,  |  Lord,  to  |  rescue  |  me,  and  |  set  me  |  safe  from  |  trouble  ; 
Shame  thou  |  those  who  |  seek  my  |  soul,  re  1  -ward  their  |  mischief  J 
double." 

Single  Khyme  : 

"Night  and  j  morning  |  were  at  |  meeting  |  over  |  Water)  -loo; 
Cocks  had  j  sung  their  |  earliest  \  greeting  ;  j  faint  and  |  low  they  | 
crew." 

Measure  3d.  —  Trochaic  of  Six  Feet,  or  Hexameter: 
"On  a  |  mountain  |  stretch'd  be|-neath  a  j  hoary  |  willow, 
Lay  a  j  shepherd  |  swain,  and  |  view'd  the  |  rolling  |  billow." 

Single  Rhyme  : 

"  Lonely  |  in  the  |  forest,  |  subtle  |  from  his  ]  birth, 
Lived  |  a  necro|-mancer,  |  wondrous  |  son  of  |  earth." 

Measure  ±th.  —  Trochaic  of  Five  Feet,  or  Pentameter: 
"Virtue's  |  bright'ning  |  ray  shall  |  beam  for  |  ever." 

Single  Rhyme  : 

"IdlS  |  aft6r  |  dinner,  |  in  his  |  chair, 
Sat  a  |  farmer,  |  ruddy,  |  fat,  and  1  fair." 


VERSIFICATION.  299 

Measure  5th. — Trochaic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter  : 

"Round  a  |  holy  |  calm  dif) -fusing, 
Love  of  |  peace  and  j  lonely  |  musing." 

Single  Bhyme : 

"Restless  |  mortals  |  toil  for  |  naught, 
Bliss  in  J  vain  from  |  earth  is  |  sought." 

Measure  6th. — Trochaic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter : 
"When  our  |  hearts  are  |  mourning." 

Single  Bhyme  : 
"  In  th6  |  days  of  |  old, 
Stories  |  plainly  |  told." 

Measure  1th. — Trochaic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter : 

"  Fancy  |  viewing, 
Joys  en | -suing." 

Single  Khyme  : 
"Tumult  |  cease, 
Sink  to  |  peace." 

Measure  8th. — Trochaic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer : 
"  Changing, 
Ranging." 

Order  III.— Anapestic  Verse. 

In  anapestic  verse  the  stress  is  laid  on  every  third 
syllable.    The  first  foot  of  an  anapestic  line  may  be  an  iambus. 

Measure  ~Lst. — Anapestic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter  : 

"  At  th6  close  |  of  th6  day,  |  when  the  ham  |  let  Is  still, 

And  mor  |-tals  the  sweets  |  of  forget  [-fulness  prove." 

Hypermeter  with  Double  Bhyme  : 

"  In  a  word,  |  so  complete  |-ly  forestall'd  |  were  the  wish|-es, 

Even  har  j-mony  struck  |  from  the  noise  |  of  the  dish|-es." 

Hypermeter  with  Triple  Bhyme  : 

"  Lean  Tom,  |  when  I  saw  |  him,  last  week,  |  on  his  horse  \  awry, 
Threaten'd  loud|-ly  to  turn  |  me  to  stone  |  with  his  sor\-cery." 

Measure  2d. — Anapestic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter  : 

"  I  am  mon  j-arch  of  all  |  I  survey  ; 
My  right  |  there  is  none  I  to  dispute." 


300  PROSODY. 

Measure  3c?. — Anapestic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter  j 

"  Wh6n  I  look  |  on  my  boys, 
They  renew  |  all  my  joys." 

Measure  Uh. — Anapestic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer: 

"  On  the  land 
Let  me  stand." 

Order  IV.— Dactylic  Verse. 

In  pure  dactylic  verse  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  first  syl- 
lable of  each  successive  three  ;  that  is,  on  the  first,  the  fourth, 
the  seventh,  the  tenth  syllable,  etc.  Full  dactylic  generally 
forms  triple  rhyme.  When  one  of  the  final  short  syllables  is 
omitted,  the  rhyme  is  double  ;  when  both  are  omitted,  single. 
Dactylic  with  single  rhyme  is  the  same  as  .anapestic  would  be 
without  its  initial  short  syllables.  Dactylic  measure  is  rather 
uncommon,  and  is  seldom  perfectly  regular. 

Measure  1st. — Dactylic  of  Eight  Feet,  or  Octometer  : 
"  Nimrod  the  |  hunter  was  |  mighty  In  |  hunting,  and  |  famed  as  the  j 

ruler  Sf  |  cities  of  |  yore  ; 

Babel,  and  [  Erech,  and  |  Accad,  and  |  Calneh,  from  |  Shinar's  fair  j 
region  his  |  name  afar  |  bore." 

Measure  2d.  — Dactylic  of  Seven  Feet,  or  Heptameter  : 
"Out  of  the  |  kingdom  of  |  Christ  shall  be  |  gathered,  by  |  angels  o'er[ 

Satan  vie  |-torious,  % 

All  that  of  |-fendeth,   that  {  lieth,  that  |  faileth  to  |  honor  his  j  name 
ever  |  glorious." 

Measure  3d. — Dactylic  of  Six  Feet,  or  Hexameter : 
"  Time,  thou  art  |  ever  in  |  motion,  on  |  wheels  of  the  |  days,  years,  and 


Restless  as  |  waves  of  the  I  ocean,  when  |  Eurus  or  |  Boreas  |  rages." 

Example  without  Rhyme  : 
*'  This  is  the  |  forest  prij-meval ;  but  |  where  are  the  |  hearts  that  bej- 

neath  it 

Leap'd  like  the  |  roe,  when  he  |  hears  in  the  \  woodland  the  |  voice  of 
the  |  huntsman  ?  " 

Measure  ±th. — Dactylic  of  Five  Feet,  or  Pentameter  : 
"Now  thou  dost  |  welcome  me,  |  welcome  me,  |  from  the  dark  |  sea, 
Land  of  the  |  beautiful,  |  beautiful  |  land  of  the  |  free." 


VERSIFICATION.  301 

Measure  5th. — Dactylic  of  Four  Feet,  or  Tetrameter  : 

"  Boys  will  Sn  j-tlclpate,  |  lavish,  and  |  dissipate 

All  that  your  |  Msy1  pate  |  hoarded  with  |  care ; 
And,  in  their  |  foolishness,  |  passion,  and  |  mulishness, 
Charge  you  with  |  churlishness,  |  spurning  your  |  pray'r." 

Measure  Qlh. — Dactylic  of  Three  Feet,  or  Trimeter : 
"Ever  sing  |  merrily,  |  merrily." 

Measure  7th. — Dactylic  of  Two  Feet,  or  Dimeter : 

"Freefr6msa|tie-t?, 

Care,  and  anx  |  iety, 

Charms  in  va  |  riety, 

Fall  to  his  |  share." 

Measure  Sth. — Dactylic  of  One  Foot,  or  Monometer  : 

"  Fearfull?, 
Tearfully."  ' 

Exercises  in  Scanning. 

Divide  the  following  verses  into  the  feet  which  compose  them,  and  dfo 
tinguish  by  marks  the  long  and  the  short  syllables. 

DEITY. 

Alone  thou  sitst  above  the  everlasting  hills, 

And  all  immensity  of  space  thy  presence  fills : 
For  thou  alone  art  God  ; — as  God  thy  saints  adore  thee  ; 
Jehovah  is  thy  name  ; — they  have  no  gods  before  thee. — G.  B. 

HEALTH. 
Up  the  dewy  mountain,  Health  is  bounding  lightly  ; 

On  her  brows  a  garland,  twin'd  with  richest  posies : 
Gay  is  she,  elate  with  hope,  and  smiling  sprightly ; 

Kedder  is  her  cheek,  and  sweeter,  than  the  rose  is. — G.  B. 

IMPENITENCE. 
The  impenitent  sinner  whom  mercy  empowers, 

Dishonors  that  goodness  which  seeks  to  restore  ; 
As  the  sands  of  the  desert  are  water'd  by  showers, 

Yet  barren  and  fruitless  remain  as  before. — G.  Brown. 

PIETY. 
Holy  and  pure  are  the  pleasures  of  piety, 

Drawn  from  the  fountain  of  mercy  and  love  ; 
Endless,  exhaustless,  exempt  from  satiety, 

Eising  unearthly,  and  soaring  above. — G.  Brown. 


302  PROSODY. 

A  SIMILE. 

The  bolt  that  strikes  the  tow'ring  cedar  dead, 
Oft  passes  harmless  o'er  the  hazel's  head. — G.  Brown. 

ANOTHER  SIMILE. 

"  Yet  to  the  general's  voice  they  soon  obey'd 
Innumerable.     As  when  the  potent  rod 
Of  Amram's  son,  in  Egypt's  evil  day, 
Wav'd  round  the  coast,  up  call'd  a  pitchy  cloud 
Of  locusts,  warping  on  the  eastern  wind, 
That  o'er  the  realm  of  impious  Pharaoh  hung 
Like  night,  and  darken'd  all  the  land  of  Nile."— Milton. 

ELEGIAC  STANZA. 

Thy  name  is  dear — 'tis  virtue  balm'd  in  love  ; 
Yet  e'en  thy  name  a  pensive  sadness  brings. 
Ah !  wo  the  day,  our  hearts  were  doom'd  to  prove, 
That  fondest  love  but  points  affliction's  stings ! — G.  Brown. 

CUPID. 
Zephyrs,  moving  bland,  and  breathing  fragrant 

With  the  sweetest  odors  of  the  spring, 
O'er  the  winged  boy,  a  thoughtless  vagrant, 

Slumb'ring  in  the  grove,  their  perfumes  fling. — G.  Brown. 

DIVINE  POWEK. 
When  the  winds  o'er  Gennesaret  roar'd, 

And  the  billows  tremendously  rose, 
The  Saviour  but  utter'd  the  word  ; 
They  were  hush'd  to  the  calmest  repose.— G1.  Brown. 

INVITATION. 
Come  from  the  mount  of  the  leopard,  spouse, 

Come  from  the  den  of  the  lion ; 
Come  to  the  tent  of  thy  shepherd,  spouse, 
Come  to  the  mountain  of  Zion. — G.  Brown. 

ADMONITION. 
In  the  days  of  thy  youth, 

Remember  thy  God : 
O !  forsake  not  his  truth, 
Incur  not  his  rod. — G.  Brown. 

COMMENDATION. 
Constant  and  duteous, 

Meek  as  the  dove, 
How  art  thou  beauteous, 

Daughter  of  love  ! — G.  Brown. 


VERSIFICATION.  303 


EDWIN,  AN  ODE. 

I.    STKOPHE. 

Led  by  the  power  of  song,  and  nature's  love, 
Which  raise  the  soul  all  vulgar  themes  above, 
The  mountain  grove 
Would  Edwin  rove, 
In  pensive  mood,  alone  ; 
And  seek  the  woody  dell, 
Where  noontide  shadows  fell, 
Cheering, 
Veering, 

Moved  by  the  zephyr's  swell. 
Here  nursed  he  thoughts  to  genius  only  known, 
*"  When  naught  was  heard  around 

But  soothed  the  rest  profound 
Of  rural  beauty  on  her  mountain  throne. 

Nor  less  he  loved  (rude  nature's  child) 
The  elemental  conflict  wild ; 
When,  fold  on  fold,  above  was  piled 
The  watery  swathe,  careering  on  the  wind. 
Such  scenes  he  saw 
With  solemn  awe, 

As  in  the  presence  of  th'  Eternal  Mind. 
Fixed  he  gazed, 
Tranced  and  raised, 
Sublimely  rapt  in  awful  pleasure  undefined. 

II.   ANTISTROPHE. 

Eeckless  of  dainty  joys,  he  finds  delight 
Where  feebler  souls  but  tremble  with  affright, 
Lo  !  now,  within  the  deep  ravine, 
A  black  impending  cloud 
Infolds  him  in  its  shroud, 
And  dark  and  darker  glooms  the  scene, 
Through  the  thicket  streaming, 
Lightnings  now  are  gleaming ; 
Thunders  rolling  dread, 
Shake  the  mountain's  head ; 
Nature's  war 
Echoes  far 
O'er  ether  borne. 


304  PROSODY. 

That  flash 
The  ash 

Has  scathed  and  torn! 
Now  it  rages ; 
Oaks  of  ages, 

Writhing  in  the  furious  blast, 
Wide  their  leafy  honors  cast ; 
Their  gnarled  arms  do  force  to  force  oppose : 
Deep  rooted  in  the  creviced  rock, 
The  sturdy  trunk  sustains  the  shock, 
Like  dauntless  hero  firm  against  assailing  foes. 

m.  EPODE. 

•  O  Thou  who  sits  ahove  these  vapors  dense, 
And  rul'st  the  storm  by  thine  omnipotence 
Making  the  collied  cloud  thy  car, 
Coursing  the  winds,  thou  rid'st  afar, 

Thy  blessings  to  dispense. 
The  early  and  the  latter  rain, 
Which  fertilize  the  dusty  plain, 

Thy  bounteous  goodness  pours. 
Dumb  be  the  atheist  tongue  abhorred  I 
All  nature  owns  thee,  sovereign  Lord  I 

And  works  thy  gracious  will ; 
At  thy  command  the  tempest  roars, 
At  thy  command  is  still. 
Thy  mercy  o'er  this  scene  sublime  presides  ; 
'Tis  mercy  forms  the  veil  that  hides 

The  ardent  solar  beam ; 
While  from  the  volleyed  breast  of  heaven, 
Transient  gleams  of  dazzling  light, 
Flashing  on  the  balls  of  sight, 

Make  darkness  darker  seem. 
Thou  mov'st  the  quick  and  sulph'rous  leven— 
The  tempest-driven 

Cloud  is  riven ; 

And  the  thirsty  mountain-side 
Drinks  gladly  of  the  gushing  tide.' 

Bo  breathed  young  Edwin,  when  the  summer  shower 
From  out  that  dark  o'erchamb'ring  cloud, 
With  lightning  flash  and  thunder  loud, 

Burst  in  wild  grandeur  o'er  his  solitary  bower. — G.  Brown* 


QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW.  305 

Questions  for  Heview. 

I.— PUNCTUATION. 

Of  what  does  Prosody  treat  ? 

What  is  Punctuation  ? 

What  are  the  principal  points,  or  marks  ? 

What  pauses  are  denoted  by  the  first  four  points  ? 

What  pauses  are  required  by  the  other  four  ? 

What  is  the  general  use  of  the  comma  ? 

How  many  rules  for  the  comma  are  there  ? — what  are  their  heads  ? 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  simple  sentences  ? — Rule  2d,  of  simple  members  ? — Rule 
3d,  of  more  than  two  words  ? — Rule  4th,  of  only  two  words  ? — Rule  5th,  of 
words  in  pairs  ? — Rule  6th,  of  words  put  absolute  ? — Rule  7th,  of  words  in 
apposition  ?— Rule  8th,  of  adjectives  ?— Rule  9th,  of  finite  verbs  /—Rule 
10th,  of  infinitives? — Rule  llth,  of  participles? — Rule  12th,  of  adverbs? — 
Rule  13th,  of  conjunctions? — Rule  14th,  of  prepositions  ? — Rule  15th,  of 
interjections  /—Rule  16th,  of  words  repeated  /—Rule  17th,  of  dependent 
quotations  ? 

II.— PUNCTUATION. 

How  many  and  what  exceptions  are  there  to  Rule  1st  for  the  comma? — to 
Rule  3d  ?— to  Rule  3d  ?— to  Rule  4th  1— to  Rule  5th  ?— to  Rule  6th  ?— to 
Rule  7th  ?— to  Rule  8th  ?— to  Rule  9th  ?— to  Rule  10th  ?— to  Rule  llth  ?— 
to  Rule  12th?— to  Rule  13th?— to  Rule  Hth  ?-to  Rule  15th?— to  Rule 
16th  ?— to  Rule  17th  ? 

When  are  different  words  said  to  be  in  the  same  construction  ? 

III. — PUNCTUATION. 

What  is  the  general  use  of  the  semicolon  ? 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  the  semicolon  ? — what  are  their  heads  ? 
What  says  Rule  1st  of  compound  members? — Rule  3d,  of  simple  members? — 

Rule  3d,  of  words  in  apposition  ? 
What  is  the  general  use  of  the  colon  ? 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  the  colon  ? — what  are  their  heads  ? 
What  says  Rule  1st  of  additional  remarks  /—Rule  2d,  of  greater  pauses? — 

Rule  3d,  of  independent  quotations  ? 
What  is  the  general  use  of  the  period  ? 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  the  period  ?— what  are  their  heads  ? 
What  says  Rule  1st  of  distinct  sentences  /—Rule  2d,  of  allied  sentences  /—Rule 

3d,  of  abbreviations  ? 

IV.  —PUNCTUATION. 

What  is  the  use  of  the  dash  ? 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  the  dash  ?— what  are  their  heads  ? 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  abrupt  pauses  /— Rule  2d,  of  emphatic  pauses?— Rule 

3d,  of  faulty  dashes? 

What  is  the  use  of  the  eroteme,  or  note  of  interrogation  ? 
How  many  rules  are  there  for  it  ? — what  are  their  heads  ? 
30 


306  PROSODY. 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  questions  direct  ?— Rule  3d,  of  questions  united  ? — Rule 

3d,  of  questions  indirect  ? 

What  is  the  use  of  the  ecphoneme,  or  note  of  exclamation  ? 
How  many  rules  are  there  for  it  ? — What  are  their  heads  ? 
What  says  Rule  1st  of  interjections  /—Rule  3d,  of  invocations  ?— Rule  3d,  of 

exclamatory  questions  ? 

V.  —PUNCTUATION. 

What  is  the  use  of  the  curves,  or  marks  of  parenthesis  ? 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  them  ? — What  are  their  heads  ? 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  the  parenthesis  /—Rule  3d,  of  included  points  ? 

What  is  said  about  other  marks  ? 

What  is  the  use  of  the  apostrophe?— of  the  hyphen  ?— of  the  diaeresis  ?— of 
the  acute  accent? — of  the  grave  accent? — of  the  circumflex? — of  the 
breve  ? — of  the  macron  ? — of  the  ellipsis  ? — of  the  caret  ? — of  the  brace  ? 
— of  the  section  ? — of  the  paragraph  ? — of  the  quotation  points  ? — of  the 
crotchets  ? — of  the  index  ? — of  the  asterisk,  the  obelisk,  the  double  dag- 
ger, and  the  parallels  ?— of  the  asterism  ?— of  the  cedilla  ? 

[Having  correctly  answered  the  foregoing  questions,  the  pupil  should  be  taught  to 
apply  what  he  has  learned  ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  he  may  be  required  to  read  the  preface 
to  this  volume,  or  a  portion  of  any  other  accurately  pointed  book,  and  to  assign  a  reason 
for  every  mark  he  finds.] 

VI.— UTTERANCE. 

What  is  Utterance  ? — What  does  it  include  ? 

What  is  pronunciation  ? — What  does  pronunciation  require  ? 

What  are  the  just  powers  of  the  letters  ? 

What  is  accent  ? — Is  every  word  accented  ? 

Can  a  word  have  more  than  one  accent  ? 

What  four  things  distinguish  the  elegant  speaker  ? 

What  is  elocution  ? — What  does  elocution  require  ? — What  is  emphasis  ? 

What  are  pauses  ? — What  is  said  of  their  duration  ? 

What  are  inflections  ?— What  is  called  the  rising  inflection  ?— What  is  called 

the  falling  inflection  ? — How  are  these  inflections  exemplified  ? — How  are 

they  used  in  asking  questions  ? 
What  are  tones  ? — Why  do  they  deserve  particular  attention  ? 

VII.— FIGURES. 

What  is  a  Figure  in  grammar  ? — How  many  kinds  of  figures  are  there  ? 
What  is  a  figure  of  orthography  ? — Name  the  figures  of  this  kind. 
What  is  mimesis  ?— What  is  an  archaism  ? 
What  is  a  figure  of  etymology  ? 
How  many  and  what  are  the  figures  of  etymology  ? 

What  is  aphseresis  ?— prosthesis  ?— syncope  ?— apocope  ?— paragoge  ?— diaere- 
sis ? — synaeresis  ? — tmesis  ? 

What  is  a  figure  of  syntax  ? — How  many  and  what  are  the  figures  of  syntax  V 
What  is  ellipsis  in  grammar  ?— Are  sentences  often  elliptical? 


QUESTIONS  FOR  EEVIEW.  307 

How  can  there  be  an  ellipsis  of  the  article  ?— the  noun  ?— the  adjective  ?— the 
pronoun  ? — the  verb  ? — the  participle  ? — the  adverb  ? — the  conjunction  ? — 
the  preposition  ?— the  interjection  ?— a  phrase  or  a  clause  ? 

What  is  pleonasm  ? — When  is  this  figure  allowable  ? 

What  is  syllepsis  ?— enallage  ?— hyperbaton  ?— What  is  said  of  hyperbaton  ? 

VIII.— FIGURES. 

What  is  a  figure  of  rhetoric  ? — What  name  have  some  such  figures  ? 

Do  figures  of  rhetoric  often  occur  ? — On  what  are  they  founded  ? 

How  many  and  what  are  the  principal  figures  of  rhetoric  ? 

What  is  a  simile  ? — a  metaphor  ? — an  allegory  ? — a  metonymy  ? — synecdoche  ? 

— hyperbole  ? — vision  ? — apostrophe  ? — personification  ?— erotesis  ? — ec- 

phonesis  ? — antithesis  ? — climax  ? — irony  ? 

IX.  — VERSIFICATION. 

What  is  Versification  ?— What  is  the  quantity  of  a  syllable  ? 
How  is  quantity  denominated  ? — How  is  it  said  to  be  proportioned  ? 
On  what  does  quantity  depend  ? — What  sounds  are  the  most  easily  length- 
ened? 

What  words  are  variable  in  quantity  ? — What  syllables  are  fixed? 
What  is  rhyme  ?— What  is  blank  verse  ? 

Of  what  does  a  line  of  poetry  consist  ? — Of  what  does  a.  foot  consist  ? 
What  are  the  principal  English  feet  ? 
What  is  an  iambus  ?— a  trochee  ?— an  anapest  ?— a  dactyl  ? 
How  many  kinds  of  verse  are  there  ? 
What  is  scanning,  or  scansion  ? 

X.  — VERSIFICATION. 

..What  syllables  are  accented  in  an  iambic  line  ? 
What  are  the  several  measures  of  iambic  verse  ? 
What  syllables  are  accented  in  a  trochaic  line  ? 
What  are  the  several  measures  of  trochaic  verse  ? 
What  syllables  are  accented  in  an  anapestic  line  ? 
What  are  the  several  measures  of  anapestic  verse  ? 
What  syllables  are  accented  in  a  dactylic  line  ? 
What  are  the  several  measures  of  dactylic  verse? 


COMPOSITION. 

AFTER  studying  carefully  the  Rules  for  Punctuation  (page 
252),  the  pupil  will  be  sufficiently  advanced  to  apply  to  his  own 
compositions  the  various  principles  and  rules  requisite  for 
their  full  correction.  The  following  suggestions  are  designed 
to  afford  a  guide  to  the  teacher  and  pupils  for  a  series  of 
graded  exercises  in  composition,  in  continuation  of  the  practi- 
cal language  lessons  already  interspersed  through  this 
work. 

In  connection  with  these  exercises,  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  study  carefully  tha 
principles  and  rules  contained  in  Appendix  II. 

Preliminary  Exercises. 

1.  Eead  a  story,  biographical  sketch,  or  incident  in  history-; 
and  require  the  pupils  to  reproduce  it  in  their  own  language,  as 
far  as  possible. 

This  exercise  should  be  continued  sufficiently  long  to  familiarize  the 
pupils  with  the  narrative  style  of  composition,  and  to  teach  them  to 
avoid  the  awkward  expressions  and  repetitions  customary  with  those 
untrained  in  this  branch  of  composition.  The  simplest  and  easiest 
narratives  should  at  first  be  selected. 

2.  Write  out,  or  otherwise  give  to  the  pupils,  a  full  account  of 
my  particular  incident  or  event,  and  require  them  to  abridge  or 
condense  it,  omitting  all  but  the  most  important  circumstances. 

3.  Write  a  brief  account  of  any  incident  or  event,  and  require 
the  pupils  to  expand  it,  adding  any  circumstances  which  they 
may  conceive  could  have  existed  or  occurred  in  connection  with 
the  facts  stated, 


COMPOSITION.  309 

Both  of  these  exercises  of  condensation  and  expansion  should  be  con- 
tinued for  some  time,  as  they  cultivate  special  faculties  of  the  mind, 
most  important  to  be  addressed  in  training  the  pupil  in  the  production 
and  expression  of  thought. 

4.  Select  apiece  of  poetry,  and  require  the  pupils  to  express 
the  same  thoughts  in  prose,  using  a  plainer  and  less  figurative 
style. 

Be  careful  to  select  only  such  pieces  as  are  fully  adapted  to  th«  pupils' 
comprehension. 

5.  Require  the  pupils  to  write  an  analysis  of  any  piece  of 
prose  or  poetry,  giving  the  topics  treated,  with  the  arguments  and 
illustrations  employed,  etc. 

Begin  with  easy  pieces,  and  advance  gradually  to  more  difficult  ones. 
Do  not  give  argumentative  pieces  at  first.  This  exercise,  when  skillfully 
employed,  is  a  most  excellent  one,  as  it  will  go  far  to  impart  to  the 
mind  habits  of  regular,  logical  thought. 

6.  Require  the  pupils  to  write  out  criticisms  of  selected  pieces, 
making  observations  on  the  thoughts,  their  arrangement  and  re- 
lation to  the  subject,  as  well  as  the  modes  of  expression  employed. 

These  exercises  will  prepare  the  mind  for  writing  compositions  on 
miscellaneous  subjects.  This  is  a  task  which  should  never  be  im- 
posed without  the  preliminary  exercises.  Many  pupils  are  permanently 
disgusted  with  composition  by  being  required  to  perform  this  impossi- 
ble task. 

Original  Composition. 

7.  Assign  a  subject,  or  theme,  and  suggest  the  mode  of  treat- 
ment, writing  down  for  the  pupils  the  topics  which  should  be  con- 
sidered  and  discussed,  with  the  arrangement  to  be  employed. 

This  exercise  should  be  pursued  until  the  pupils'  minds  have  become 
accustomed  to  the  discovery  of  topics.  It  is  designed  to  afford  training 
in  what  is  called,  in  rhetoric,  Invention. 

During  the  exercise,  the  teachers  should  require  the  pupils  to  suggest 
the  topics,  before  deciding  himself  what  is  proper. 

8.  Reverse  the  above  exercise ;  that  is,  select  an  appropriate 
subject,  and  require  the  pupils  to  discover  the  topics  which  should 


310  APPENDIX. 

be  treated  under  it,  and  to  write,  by  properly  arranging  them,  an 
analysis  of  the  mode  of  treatment. 

This  should  be  done  at  first  so  as  to  afford  a  brief  sketch  or  outline, 
which  afterward  may  be  expanded  or  filled  in,  by  suggesting  illustra- 
tions, arguments,  etc.,  under  each  topic.  As  considerable  exercise  of 
this  kind  will  be  needed,  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  write  out  in 
full  only  an  occasional  composition ;  but  the  analysis  should  be  copied  in 
a  book,  and  preserved  by  the  pupil,  for  the  next  exercise,  which  is  the 
writing  of  compositions  on  selected  themes. 

9.  Require  the  pupils  to  write  compositions  on  subjects  either 
selected  for  them  or  suggested  by  their  own  minds. 

It  is  preferable,  at  this  stage,  that  the  pupils  should  select  their  own 
subjects,  as  a  general  thing,  in  order  to  give  full  scope  to  the  original 
suggestions  of  the  mind,  and  to  the  unfolding  of  any  special  talent  or 
genius  for  composition,  which  will  often  be  found  to  show  itself  under 
the  training  here  outlined,  if  it  be  faithfully  persevered  in. 


LETTER- WRITING. 

In  connection  with  the  above  exercises,  the  pupils  should 
be  instructed  in  letter-writing.  This  will  include  the 
proper  forms  as  shown  below. 

Heading. 

The  heading  consists  of  the  name  of  the  place  (sometimes 
the  street  and  number)  from  which  the  letter  is  sent,  and  the 
date, — including  month,  day,  and  year.  This  should  be  writ- 
ten a  line  or  two  from  the  top  of  the  page,  and  should  be 
commenced  so  that  it  may  end  near  the  margin  of  the  sheet 
at  the  right.  Thus  : — 


Q/r  ew  Ol@aven_, 


LETTER-WRITING.  311 

Or,  when  the  street  is  mentioned  :  — 

(Sort 

SO, 


Observe  the  order  —  HOUSE,  STREET,  CITY,  STATE,  DATE  —  and 
the  capitals  and  pauses. 

If  you  live  in  the  country,  the  order  should  be  TOWN 
(COUNTY),  STATE,  DATE.  If  the  town  is  large  the  County  may 
be  omitted,  unless  there  are  other  towns  in  the  State  having 
the  same  name. 

Put  the  following  headings  into  correct  form  : 

1.  317  Pennsylvania  ave  Washington  dc  June  9  1872 

2.  manchester  vt  bennington  co  dec  18  1891 

3.  indianapolis  p  o  box  215  Ind.  30  sept  1885 

4.  kenmore  house  march  24  new  york  albany  1892 

Address. 

The  address  should  follow  on  the  next  line,  near  the  left 
side  of  the  page,  usually  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  body  of 
the  letter.  The  address  consists  of  the  name,  with  some 
title  of  respect  or  professional  title,  and  residence.  The  resi- 
dence is  generally  omitted  except  in  formal  letters  and  those 
in  which  the  name  is  written  at  the  close  of  the  letter. 
Thus  :— 

For  very  formal  letters  :  — 
To  a  gentleman. 


own, 


312  LETTER-WRITING. 

To  a  lady. 

(Use  Mrs.  for  a  married  lady.) 


Sft^ate  <£?  (ffie/dd, 
QMaaam, 


In  ordinary  use  :  — 

am  &£ 


66- 


To  a  company  : — 


o  tne  ISSoata  cff 


implying  greater  intimacy 
c&al 


LETTER-WRITING.  313 

Close  the  letter  by  writing  the  full  name,  title,  and  resi- 
dence at  the  lower  left-hand  corner  on  the  line  below  your 
own  signature,  as  follows  : — 


%     Ja 


i&veiana,   & 

In  less  formal  letters,  the  name,  title,  and  residence  may 
be  written  below  and  at  the  left  of  the  signature,  at  the  end 
of  the  letter.  ^ 

Other  forms  will  be  required  according  to  circumstances, 
varying  with  the  persons  addressed  and  the  terms  of  intimacy 
that  exist.  Thus  : — 

A.  B.  Palmer,  l&g. ;  John  Porter,  M.D.  ;  Dr.  John  Porter; 
B.  C.  Baldwin,  LL.D. ;  Rev.  H.  J.  Davis,  or  Rev.  Mr.  Davis; 
Noah  Porter,  D.D.,  LL.D.  ;  etc. 

When  ladies  are  addressed,  the  following  are  customary  : — 

Miss  Brown  ;  Miss  Kate  Field;  Mrs.  George  Burns;  Mrs. 
General  Grant ;  etc. 

These  may  be  followed  by : 

Sir,  Dear  Sir,  My  dear  Sir,  Sirs,  Gentlemen  ;  Madam,  Dear 
Madam,  My  dear  Madam,  Ladies  ;  Dear  Mr.  Hart,  My  dear 
Mr.  Smith  ;  Dear  Friend,  My  dear  Friend  ;  etc. 

The  title  Hon.  is  applied  to  persons  holding  high  govern- 
mental positions  ;  His  Excellency  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States  and  to  State  Governors. 

Put  the  following  addresses  into  correct  form : — 

1.  mr  george  n  smith  pittsburgh  pa 

2.  rev  p  w  stowell  salem.  mass 

3.  d  n  kinsman  md  long  st  columbus  ohio 

4.  prof  alfred  jones  Johns  hopkins  university  baltimore  md 

5.  mrs  samuel  goodale  waterbury  conn. 

Body. 

The  body  of  the  letter  should  be  commenced  on  the  line 
next  below  the  address,  and  a  little  to  the  right  of  it.  The 


314 

style  will  vary  with  the  character  of  the  letter.  Business  let- 
ters should  be  formal,  brief,  and  to  the  point.  Friendly  cor- 
respondence requires  an  easy,  familiar  style,  for  the  acquisi- 
tion of  which  the  study  of  good  models  will  be  very  usefuL 
A  few  specimens  for  the  opening  are  here  given  : — 

Yours  of  the  5th  inst.  is  just  received,  etc. 

Your  favor  of  the  3d  inst.  is  received,  etc. 

Your  esteemed  favor  of  the  Wth  inst.  is  at  hand,  etc. 

/  am  in  receipt  of  yours,  etc. 

Yours  of  the  20£/i  ult.  has  remained  unanswered  until  now,  etc. 

Closing. 

The  forms  of  closing,  followed  by  the  signature,  are  various. 
A  few  are  here  given  : — 

Respectfully  yours  ;  Very  respectfully  yours  /  Truly  yours  ; 
Yours  truly  ;  Very  truly  yours  ;  Your  obedient  servant ;  Your 
obedient,  humble  servant  ;  Yours  cordially  ;  Faithfully  yours  ; 
Yours  affectionately  ;  Ever  affectionately  yours  ;  As  ever,  your 
friend;  etc. 

Write  a  letter  of  100  words  to  a  school  friend.  Write  one 
to  your  teacher  thanking  her  for  her  kindness  in  assisting 
you  in  your  lessons  after  school. 

Write  a  letter  home,  supposing  yourself  away  at  boarding- 
school. 

Write  a  letter  in  reply  to  an  advertisement  for  a  boy  in  a 
publisher's  office.  State  your  qualifications. 

In  all  you  write  REMEMBER  to  be  neat  ;  courteous  ;  care- 
ful in  spelling,  punctuation,  and  capitals;  and,  in  business 
letters  especially,  brief  and  definite. 

Superscription. 

Write  the  name  about  midway  between  the  top  and  bot- 
tom of  the  envelope  ;  under  this  write  the  address,  commenc- 
ing each  line  a  little  farther  to  the  right  than  that  above  it. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  address  as  legible  as 
possible. 

Affix  the  postage  stamp  to  the  right-hand  corner  at  the  top 
of  the  envelope. 


The  following  are  examples  : — 


I  Stamp. 


£0 


316 


APPENDIX. 


o/i  ^ 


s 

m 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE. 

STYLE  is  the  particular  manner  in  which  a  person  expresses  his  con- 
ceptions by  means  of  language.  It  is  different  from  mere  words,  and  is 
not  to  be  regulated  altogether  by  rules  of  construction.  It  always  has 
some  relation  to  the  author's  peculiar  manner  of  thinking ;  and,  being 
that  sort  of  expression  which  his  thoughts  most  readily  assume,  some- 
times partakes,  not  only  of  what  is  characteristic  of  the  man,  but  even 
of  national  peculiarity.  The  words  which  an  author  employs,  may  be 
proper,  and  so  constructed  as  to  violate  no  rule  of  syntax ;  and  yet  his 
style  may  have  great  faults. 

To  designate  the  general  characters  of  style,  such  epithets  as  concise, 
diffuse, — neat,  negligent, — nervous,  feeble, — simple,  affected, — easy, 
stiff, — perspicuous,  obscure,  —  elegant,  florid, — are  employed.  A  con- 
siderable diversity  of  style,  may  be  found  in  compositions  all  equally 
excellent  in  their  kind.  And,  indeed,  different  subjects,  as  well  as  the 
different  endowments  by  which  genius  is  distinguished,  require  this 
diversity.  But  in  forming  his  style,  the  learner  should  remember,  that 
a  negligent,  feeble,  affected,  stiff,  or  obscure  style,  is  always  faulty ; 
and  that  perspicuity,  ease,  simplicity,  strength,  and  neatness,  are  quali- 
ties always  to  be  aimed  at. 

In  order  to  acquire  a  good  style,  the  frequent  practice  of  composing 
and  writing  something,  is  indispensably  necessary.  Without  exercise 
and  diligent  attention,  rules  or  precepts  for  the  attainment  of  this  object 
will  be  of  no  avail.  When  the  learner  has  acquired  such  a  knowledge 
of  grammar,  as  to  be  in  some  degree  qualified  for  the  undertaking,  he 
should  devote  a  stated  portion  of  his  time  to  composition.  This  exer- 
cise will  bring  the  powers  of  his  mind  into  requisition,  in  a  way  that  is 
well  calculated  to  strengthen  them.  And  if  he  has  opportunity  for 
reading,  he  may,  by  a  diligent  perusal  of  the  best  authors,  acquire  both 
language  and  taste,  as  well  as  sentiment ;  and  these  three  are  the  essen- 
tial qualifications  of  a  good  writer. 

In  regard  to  the  qualities  which  constitute  a  good  style,  we  can  here 
offer  no  more  than  a  few  brief  hints.  WTith  respect  to  words  and 
phrases,  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  purity,  propriety,  and  pre- 
cision ;  and,  with  respect  to  sentences,  to  perspicuity,  unity,  and  strength. 
Under  each  of  these  heads,  we  shall  arrange,  in  the  form  of  short  pre- 
cepts, a  few  of  the  most  important  directions  for  the  forming  of  a  good 
style. 

I.— Purity. 

Purity  of  style  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words  and  phrases  only,  ag 
belong  to  the  language  which  we  write  or  speak, 


318  APPENDIX. 

PRECEPT  1. — Avoid  the  unnecessary  use  of  foreign  words  or  idioms: 
as  fraicheur,  hauteur,  delicatesse,  politesset  noblesse  ;  he  repented  him- 
self; it  serves  to  an  excellent  purpose. 

PRECEPT  2. — Avoid,  on  ordinary  occasions,  obsolete  or  antiquated 
words ;  as,  whilom,  erewhile,  whoso,  albeit,  moreover,  aforetime,  me- 
thinks. 

PRECEPT  3. — Avoid  strange  or  unauthorized  words ;  as,  flutteration, 
inspectator,  judgematical,  incumberment,  connexity,  decterized,  martyr- 
ized. 

PRECEPT  4. — Avoid  bombast,  or  affectation  of  fine  writing.  It  is 
ridiculous,  however  serious  the  subject :  as,  "  Personifications,  however 
rich  the  depictions,  and  unconstrained  their  latitude ;  analogies,  how- 
ever imposing  the  objects  of  parallel,  and  the  media  of  comparison ;  can 
never  expose  the  consequences  of  sin  to  the  extent  of  fact,  or  the  range 
of  demonstration." — Anonymous. 

II. — Propriety. 

Propriety  of  language  consists  in  the  selection  and  right  construction, 
of  such  words  as  the  best  usage  has  appropriated  to  those  ideas  which 
we  intend  to  express  by  them. 

PRECEPT  1. — Avoid*  low  and  provincial  expressions :  such  as,  "  Say* 
I ;  " — "  Thinks  1  to  myself  ;" — "  To  get  into  a  scrape  ;  " — "  Stay  here 
while  I  return." 

PRECEPT  2. — In  writing  prose,  avoid  words  and  phrases  that  are 
merely  poetical:  such  as,  morn,  eve,  plaint,  lone,  amid,  oft,  steepy ; — 
"  what  time  the  winds  arise." 

PRECEPT  3.  —Avoid  technical  terms ;  except  where  they  are  neces- 
sary, in  treating  of  a  particular  art  or  science.  In  technology,  they  are 
pro'per. 

PRECEPT  4. — Avoid  the  recurrence  of  words  in  different  senses,  or 
such  a  repetition  of  words  as  denotes  paucity  of  language;  as,  "His 
own  reason  might  have  suggested  better  reasons." — "  Gregory  favored 
the  undertaking,  for  no  other  reason  than  this,  that  the  manager,  in 
countenance,  favored  his  friend." — "I  want  to  go  and  see  what  he 
wants." 

PRECEPT  5. — Supply  words  that  are  wanting:  thus,  instead  of  say- 
ing, "This  action  increased  his  former  services,"  say,  "This  action  in- 
creased the  merit  of  his  former  services. " 

PRECEPT  6. — Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  expressions;  as,  "His 
memory  shall  be  lost  on  the  earth." — "I  long  since  learned  to  like 
nothing  but  what  you  do. " 

PRECEPT  7. — Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  expressions;  as, 
"  I  have  observed  that  the  superiority  among  these  coffee-house  politi- 
cians, proceeds  from  an  opinion  of  gallantry  and  fashion." — "These 
words  do  not  convey  even  an  opaque  idea  of  the  author's  meaning. " 

PRECEPT  8. — Observe  the  natural  order  of  things  or  events,  and  do 
not  put  the  cart  before  the  horse;  as,  "The  scribes  taught  and  studied 
the  law  of  Moses."—"  They  can  neither  return  to  nor  leave  their  houses." 
— "  He  tumbled,  head  over  heels,  into  the  water." 

III.— Precision. 

Precision  consists  in  avoiding  all  superfluous  words,  and  adapting  the 
expression  exactly  to  the  thought,  so  as  to  exhibit  neither  more  nor  less 
than  is  intended  by  the  author. 


QUALITIES   OF   STYLE.  319 

PRECEPT  1. — Avoid  a  useless  tautology,  either  of  expression  or  senti- 
ment: as  in,  "Return  again ; — return  back  again  ; — converse  together; 
—rise  up;— fall  down  ;— enter  in;— a.  mutual  likeness  to  each  other; — 
the  latter  end; — liquid  streams; — grateful  thanks; — the  last  of  all; — 
throughout  the  whole  book. "  ' '  Whenever  I  go,  he  always  meets  me 
there."— "Where  is  he  atf  In  there."— "  Nothing  else  but  that."— 
"It  is  odious  and  hateful."—  "His  faithfulness  and  fidelity  should  be 
rewarded." 

PRECEPT  2. — Observe  the  exact  meaning  of  words  accounted  synony- 
mous, and  employ  those  words  which  are  the  most  suitable ;  as,  "A 
diligent  scholar  may  acquire  knowledge,  gain  celebrity,  obtain  rewards, 
win  prizes,  and  get  high  honor,  though  he  earn  no  money."  These 
six  verbs  have  nearly  the  same  meaning,  and  yet  they  cannot  well  be 
changed. 

IV.— Perspicuity. 

Perspicuity  consists  in  freedom  from  obscurity  or  ambiguity.  It  is  a 
quality  so  essential,  in  every  kind  of  writing,  that  for  the  want  of  it,  no 
merit  can  atonar  "Without  this,  the  richest  ornaments  of  style,  only 
glimmer  through  the  dark,  and  puzzle  instead  of  pleasing  the  reader. "- 
Blair.  Perspicuity,  being  the  most  important  property  of  language,  and 
an  exemption  from  the  most  embarrassing  defects,  seems  even  to  rise  to 
a  degree  of  positive  beauty.  We  are  naturally  pleased  with  a  style  that 
frees  us  from  all  suspense  in  regard  to  the  meaning  ;  that  "  carries  us 
through  the  subject  without  embarrassment  or  confusion ;  and  that  always 
flows  like  a  limpid  stream,  through  which  we  can  see  to  the  very  bottom. " 

PRECEPT  1. — Place  adjectives,  relative  pronouns,  participles,  adverbs, 
and  explanatory  phrases,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  to  which  they 
relate,  and  in  such  a  situation  as  the  sense  requires.  The  following  sen- 
tences are  deficient  in  perspicuity  :  "  Reverence  is  the  veneration  paid 
to  superior  sanctity,  intermixed  with  a  certain  degree  of  awe."  "The 
Romans  understood  liberty,  at  least,  as  well  as  we."  "  Taste  was  never 
made  to  cater  for  vanity." 

PRECEPT  2. — In  prose,  avoid  a  poetic  collocation  of  words. 

PRECEPT  3. — Avoid  faulty  ellipses,  and  repeat  all  words  necessary  to 
preserve  the  sense.  The  following  sentences  require  the  words  inserted 
in  crotchets:  "  Restlessness  of  mind  disqualifies  us,  both  for  the  enjoy- 
ment of  peace,  and  [for]  the  performance  of  our  duty." — Murray1  s  Key. 
"  The  Christian  religion  gives  a  more  lovely  character  of  God,  than  any 
[other]  religion  ever  did." — Ibid. 

V.— Unity. 

Unity  consists  in  avoiding  useless  breaks  or  pauses,  and  keeping  one 
object  predominant  throughout  a  sentence  or  paragraph.  Every  sen- 
tence, whether  its  parts  be  few  or  many,  requires  strict  unity. 

PRECEPT  1. — Avoid  brokenness  and  hitching.  The  following  example 
lacks  the  very  quality  of  which  it  speaks  :  "  But  most  of  all,  in  a  single 
sentence,  is  required  the  strictest  unity.  It  may  consist  of  parts,  indeed, 
but  these  parts  must  be  so  closely  bound  together,  as  to  make  the  impres- 
sion upon  the  mind,  0/one  object,  not  tffmany." — Murray1  s  Grammar. 

PRECEPT  2. — Treat  different  topics  in  separate  paragraphs,  and  dis- 
tinct sentiments  in  separate  sentences.  Error  :  "  The  two  volumes  are, 
indeed,  intimately  connected,  and  constitute  one  uniform  system  of  Eng- 
lish grammar." — Murray's  Preface. 


320  APPENDIX. 

PRECEPT  3.  — In  the  progress  of  a  sentence,  do  not  desert  the  princi- 
pal subject  in  favor  of  adjuncts.  Error:  "To  substantives  belong  gen- 
der, number,  and  case  ;  and  they  are  all  of  the  third  person  when  spoken 
of,  and  of  the  second  when  spoken  to." — Murray's  Grammar. 

PRECEPT  4.  — Do  not  introduce  parentheses,  except  when  a  lively  re- 
mark may  be  thrown  in  without  diverting  the  mind  too  long  from  the 
principal  subject. 

VI.— Strength. 

Strength  consists  in  giving  to  the  several  words  and  members  of  a 
sentence,  such  an  arrangement  as  shall  bring  out  the  sense  to  the  best 
advantage,  and  present  every  idea  in  its  due  importance.  A  concise 
style  is  the  most  favorable  to  strength. 

PRECEPT  1. — Place  the  most  important  words  in  the  situation  in  which 
they  will  make  the  strongest  impression. 

PRECEPT  2.  —A  weaker  assertion  should  not  follow  a  stronger ;  and 
when  the  sentence  consists  of  two  members,  the  longer  should  be  the 
concluding  one. 

PRECEPT  3.  —When  things  are  to  be  compared  or  contrasted,  their  re- 
semblance or  opposition  will  be  rendered  more  striking,  if  some  resem- 
blance in  the  language  and  construction  be  preserved. 

PRECEPT  4. — It  is,  in  general,  ungraceful  to  end  a  sentence  with  an 
adverb,  a  preposition,  or  any  inconsiderable  word  or  phrase,  which  may 
either  be  omitted  or  be  introduced  earlier- 


POETIC   DICTION. 

POETRY,  as  defined  by  Dr.  Blair,  "is  the  language  of  passion,  or  of 
enlivened  imagination,  formed,  most  commonly,  into  regular  numbers. " 
The  style  of  poetry  differs,  in  many  respects,  from  that  which  is  com- 
monly adopted  in  prose.  Poetic  diction  abounds  in  bold  figures  of 
speech,  and  unusual  collocations  of  words.  A  great  part  of  the  figures 
which  have  been  treated  of  under  the  head  of  prosody,  are  purely  poeti- 
cal. The  primary  aim  of  a  poet  is  to  please  and  to  move  ;  and,  there- 
fore, it  is  to  the  imagination,  and  the  passions,  that  he  speaks.  He  may, 
and  he  ought  to,  ilave  it  in  his  view  to  instruct  aud  reform  ;  but  it  is  in- 
directly, and  by  pleasing  and  moving,  that  he  accomplishes  this  end. 
The  exterior  and  most  obvious  distinction  of  poetry  is  versification  ;  yet 
there  are  some  forms  of  verse  so  loose  and  familiar  as  to  be  hardly  dis- 
tinguishable from  prose ;  and  there  is  also  a  species  of  prose  so  meas- 
ured in  its  cadences,  and  so  much  raised  in  its  tone,  as  to  approach 
very  nearly  to  poetical  numbers. 

Poetical  Peculiarities. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  striking  peculiarities  in  which  the 
poets  indulge,  and  are  indulged  : — 
I. — They  very  often  omit  the  articles  ;  as, 

"  What  dreadful  pleasure  !  there  to  stand  sublime, 
Like  shipwrecked  mariner  on  desert  coast !  " — Beattie. 

II. — They  abbreviate  many  nouns;  as,  amaze,  for  amazement;  ac- 
claim, for  acclamation  ;  consult,  for  consultation  ;  corse,  for  corpse  ;  eve, 
or  even,  for  evening  ;  fount,  for  fountain  ;  helm,  for  helmet ;  lament,  for 
lamentation;  morn,  for  morning ;  plaint,  for  complaint;  targe,  for 
target ;  weal,  for  wealth. 

III. — They  employ  several  nouns  that  are  not  used  in  prose,  or  are 
used  but  rarely ;  as,  beuison,  boon,  emprise,  fane,  guerdon,  guise,  ire, 
ken,  lore,  meed,  sire,  steed,  stithy,  welkin,  yore. 

IV. — They  introduce  the  noun  self  after  another  noun  of  the  possessive 
case  ;  as, 

1.  "Affliction's  semblance  bends  not  o'er  thy  tomb, 

Affliction's  self  deplores  thy  youthful  doom." — Byron. 

2.  "  Thoughtless  of  beauty,  she  was  beauty's  self ." —Thomson. 

V. — They  place  before  the  verb  nouns,  or  other  words,  that  usually 
come  after  it ;  and,  after  it,  those  that  usually  come  before  it ;  as, 

1.  "  No  jealousy  their  dawn  of  love  overcast. 

Nor  blasted  were  their  wedded  days  with  strife."— Beattie. 

2.  "No  hive  hast  thou  of  hoarded  sweets." 

3.  "  Thy  chain  a  wretclied  weight  shall  prove." — iMnghorne. 

4.  "Follows the  loosen'd  aggravated  roar.'1'' — Thomson. 
6.  "That  purple  grows  the  primrose  pale."— Langhorne. 


322  APPENDIX. 

VI. — They  often  place  adjectives  after  their  nouns ;  as, 

1.  "  Or  where  the  gorgeous  East,  with  richest  hand, 

Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric,  pearl  and  gold." — Milton. 

2.  "  Come,  nymph  demure,  with  mantle  blue."' 

VTI. — They  ascribe  qualities  to  things  to  which  they  do  not  literally 
belong ;  as, 

1.  "  Or  drowsy  tinkling*  lull  the  distant  folds." — Gray. 

2.  "  Imbitter'd  more  and  more  from  peevish  day  to  da}-." — Thomson. 

3.  "All  thin  and  naked,  to  the  numb  cold  night"—  tihakspeare. 

VIII. — They  use  concrete  terms  to  express  abstract  qualities  (i.e.,  ad- 
jectives for  nouns) ;  as, 

1.  "  Earth's  meanest  son,  all  trembling,  prostrate  falls, 

And  on  the  boundless  of  thy  goodness  calls." — Young. 

2.  "Meanwhile,  whate'er  of  beautiful  or  new, 

Sublime  or  dreadful,  in  earth,  sea,  or  sky, 
By  chance  or  search  was  offered  to  his  view, 

He  ?cann'd  with  curious  and  romantic  eye." — Seattle. 

3.  "  Won  from  the  void  and  formless  infinite."1 — Milton. 

IX. — They  substitute  quality  for  manner  (i.e.,  adjectives  for  adverbs) ; 
as, 

1.  " The  stately- sailing  swan, 

Gives  out  his  snowy  plumage  to  the  gale ; 

And,  arching  proud  his  neck,  with  oary  feet 

Bears  f orward  .fierce,  and  guards  his  osier  isle." — Thomson. 

2.  "  Thither  continual  pilgrims  crowded  still.'" — Id. 

X. — They  form  new  compound  epithets  ;  as, 

1.  "In  world-rejoicing  state,  it  moves  sublime." — Thomson. 

2.  "  The  dewy-skirted  clouds  imbibe  the  sun.'' — Id. 

3.  "By  brooks  and  groves  in  hollow-whispering  gales." — Id. 

4.  "  The  violet  of  sky-woven  vest." — Langhorne. 

5.  "  A  league  from  Epidamnum  had  we  sailed, 

Before  the  always-wind-obeying  deep 

Gave  any  tragic  instance  of  our  harm." — Shakspeare. 

XX — They  connect  the  comparative  degree  to  the  positive ;  as, 
1.  "  Near  and  more  near  the  billows  rise." — Merrick. 
3.  "  Wide  and  wider  spreads  the  vale." — Dyer. 
3.  "  Wide  and  more  wide,  the  o'erflowings  of  the  mind 
Take  every  creature  in,  of  every  kind."— Pope. 

XTL — They  form  many  adjectives  in  y,  which  are  not  common  in 
prose  ;  as,  A  gleamy  ray, — towery  height,—  sleepy  hill, — steely  casque, — 
heapy  harvests, — moony  shield, — writhy  snake, — stilly  lake, — vasty  deep, 
— paly  circlet. 

XHI. — They  employ  adjectives  of  an  abbreviated  form  ;  as,  dread,  for 
dreadful ;  drear,  for  dreary  ;  ebon,  for  ebony  ;  hoar,  for  hoary  ;  lone, 
for  lonely ;  scant,  for  scanty;  slope,  for  sloping ;  submiss,  for  submis- 
sive ;  vermil,  for  vermittion  ;  yon,  for  yonder. 

XIV.— They  employ  several  adjectives  that  are  not  used  in  prose,  or 
are  used  but  seldom ;  as,  azure,  blithe,  boon,  dank,  darklijiff,  darktomc, 
doughty,  dun,  fett,  rife,  rapt,  rueful,  sear,  sylvan,  twain,  wun. 

XV.— They  employ  personal  pronouns,  and  introduce  their  nouns 

afterwards  ;  'as, 

1.  "  It  curl'd  not  Tweed  alone,  that  breeze."—  TF.  Scott. 

2.  "  Is  it  the  lightning's  quivering  glance, 

That  on  the  thicket  streams ; 
Or  do  they  flash  on  spear  and  lance, 
Tfce  sun^s  retiring  beams  f  "— Id. 


PCETIC   DICTION".  323 

XVI. — They  sometimes  omi   the  relative,  of  the  nominative  case ;  as, 

"  For  is  there  aught  in  sleep  can  charm  the  wise  ?  " — Thomson. 
XVII. — They  omit  the  antecedent,  or  introduce  it  after  the  relative  ;  as, 

1.  ''''Who  never  fasts,  no  banquet  e'er  enjoys, 

Who  never  toils  or  watches,  never  sleeps." — Armstrong. 

2.  "Who  dares  think.one  thing  and  another  tell, 

My  soul  detests  him  as  the  gates  of  hell." — Pope's  Homer. 

XVIII. — They  remove  relative  pronouns  and  other  connectives,  i: 
the  body  of  their  clauses  ;  as, 

1.  "  Parts  the  fine  locks,  her  graceful  head  that  deck." — Darwin. 

2.  "  Not  half  so  dreadful  rises  to  the  sight 

Orion's  dog,  the  year  when  autumn  weighs." — Pope's  Homer. 

XIX. — They  make  intransitive  verbs  transitive ;  as, 

1.  " A  while  he  stands. 

Gazing  the  inverted  landscape,  half  afraid 

To  meditate  the  blue  profound  below."— Thomson. 

2.  "  Still  in  harmonious  intercourse,  they  liv'd 

The  rur^al  day,  and  talked  the  flowing  heart." — Id. 

XX.  — They  give  to  the  imperative  mood  the  first  and  the  third  person  ; 
as, 

1.  "  Turn  we  a  moment  fancy's  rapid  flight." — TJiomson. 

2.  "  Be  man's  peculiar  icork  his  sole  delight." — Beattie. 

3.  "  And  what  is  reason  ?    Be  she  thus  defined  : 

Reason  is  upright  stature  in  the  soul !  " —  Young. 

XXI. — They  employ  can,  could,  and  would  as  principal  verbs  transi- 
tive ;  as, 

1.  "  What  for  ourselves  we  can,  is  always  ours." 

2.  "  Who  does  the  best  his  circumstance  allows. 

Does  well,  acts  nobly  : — angels  could  no  more." — Young. 

3.  "  What  would  this  man  ?    Now  upward  will  he  soar, 

And,  little  less  than  angel,  would  be  more." — Pope. 

XXII. — They  place  the  infinitive  before  the  Word  on  which  it  de- 
pends ;  as, 

'•  When  first  thy  sire  to  send  on  earth 
Virtue,  his  darling  child,  designed." — Gray. 

XXIII. — They  place  the  auxiliary  after  its  principal ;  as, 

"  No  longer  heed  the  sunbeam  bright 
That  plays  on  Carron's  breast  he  can." — Langhorne. 

XXIV. — Before  verbs  they  sometimes  arbitrarily  employ  or  omit  prc 
fixes  ;  as,  begird,  bedim,  evanish,  emove ;  for  gird,  dim,  vanish,  move  :  - 
lure,  wail,  icilder,  reave ;  for  allure,  bewail,  bewilder,  bereave. 

XXV. — They  abbreviate  verbs;  as,  list,  for  listen ;  ope,  for  open. 

XXVI. — They  employ  several  verbs  that  are  not  used  in  prose,  or  are 
used  but  rarely ;  as,  appal^.  astound,  brook,  cower,  doff,  ken,  wend,  ween, 
trow. 

XXVII. — They  sometimes  imitate  a  Greek  construction  of  the  infini- 
tive ;  as, 

1.  "  Who  would  not  sing  for  Lycidas  ?  he  knew 

Himself  to  sing,  and  build  the  lofty  rhyme." — Milton. 

2.  "  For  not,  to  have  been,  flipped  in  Loihe  lako, 

Could  save  th6  son  of  Thetis  from  to  die:"— Spenser, 


324  APPENDIX. 

XXVUL — They  employ  the  participles  more  frequently  than  prose 
writers,  and  in  a  construction  somewhat  peculiar  ;  as, 

1.  "  He  came,  and,  standing  in  the  midst,  explained 

The  peace  rejected,  but  the  truce  obtain' d.""— Pope. 

2.  "  As  a  poor  miserable  captive  thrall 

Comes  to  the  place  where  he  before  had  sat 
Among  the  prime  in  splendor,  now  deposed, 
Ejected,  emptied,  gaz'd,  unpitied,  ghunrid, 
A  spectacle  of  ruin  or  of  scorn."— Jfiiton. 

XXIX. — They  employ  several  adverbs  that  are  not  used  in  prose, 
or  are  used  but  seldom ;  as,  oft,  haply,  inly,  blithely,  cheerily,  defUy, 
felly,  rifely,  ruefully,  starkly,  yarely. 

XXX.— They  give  to  adverbs  a  peculiar  location  ;  as, 

'  Peeping  from  forth  their  alleys  green.'1 — Collins. 
'  Erect  the  standard  there  of  ancient  night." — Milton. 
•  The  silence  often  of  pure  innocence 

Persuades,  when  speaking  fails.'' — ShakKpeare. 
'  Where  universal  love  not  smiles  around." — Thomson. 
'  Robs  me  of  that  which  not  enriches  him."—  Shakspeare. 

XXXI. — They  omit  the  introductory  adverb  there  ;  as, 
"  Was  nought  around  but  images  of  rest." — Thomson. 

XXXII. — They  employ  the  conjunctions,  or — or,  and  nor — nor, 
as  correspondents ;  as, 

1.  "  Or  by  the  lazy  Scheldt  or  wandering  Po."—  Goldsmith. 

2.  •'  Wealth  heap'd  on  wealth,  nor  truth  nor  safety  buys." — Johnson. 

3.  "  Who  by  repentance  is  not  satisfied, 

Is  nor  of  heaven,  nor  earth.''— Shakspeare. 

XXXIII. — They  often  place  prepositions  and  their  adjuncts,  be- 
fore the  words  on  which  they  depend  ;  as, 

"  Against  your  fame  with  fondness  hate  combines; 
The  rival  batters,  and  the  lover  mines." — Johnson. 

XXXIY. — They  sometimes  place  the  preposition  after  its  object ;  as, 

1.  "  When  beauty,  Eden's  bowers  within, 

First  stretch'd  the  arm  to  deeds  of  sin, 
When  passion  burn'd,  and  prudence  slept, 
The  pitying  angels  bent  and  wept." — Hogg. 

2.  "  The  Muses  fair,  these  peaceful  shades  among, 

With  skillful  fingers  sweep  the  trembJing  strings." — Lloyd. 

XXXV.— They  employ  interjections  more  frequently  than  prose 
writers ;  as, 

"  O  let  me  gaze  ! — Of  gazing  there's  no  end. 
O  let  me  think  ! — Thought  too  is  wilder'd  here." — Young. 

XXXVI. — They  employ  antiquated  words  and  modes  of  expres- 
sion ;  as, 

1.  "  Withouten  that  would  come  an  heavier  bale."—  Thomson. 

2.  "He  was  to  wect,  a  little  roguish  page, 

Save  sleep  and  play,  who  minded  nought  at  all." — Id. 

3.  "  Not  one  eftfioons  in  view  was  to  be  found." — Id. 

4.  "To  number  up  the  thousands  dwelling  here, 

An  useless  were,  and  eke  an  endless  task." — Id. 

5.  "Of  clerks  good  plenty  here  you  mote  espy." — Id. 

6.  "  But  these  I  passen  by,  with  nameless  numbers  moe."—Id. 


FORMATION  OF  DERIVATIVE  WORDS. 


DERIVATIVE  words  are  formed  by  means  of  prefixes  and 
suffixes,  which,  in  the  languages  from  which  they  came, 
were  words  or  parts  of  words,  and  hence  they  express  mean- 
ing. In  general,  prefixes  and  suffixes  add  their  own  meanings 
to  those  of  the  stems  to  which  they  are  attached.  Very  many 
derivatives  have  in  the  course  of  time  assumed  figurative,  in 
addition  to  their  literal,  meanings  ;  many  have  exchanged  a 
literal  for  a  figurative  meaning  ;  others  have  enlarged  their 
literal  signification,  while  still  others  have  become  restricted 
to  narrower  fields. 

To  form  a  clear  idea  of  the  present  meaning  of  a  word,  it 
is  necessary  in  some  cases  to  trace  its  history  to  find  the 
connection  between  the  current  and  the  etymological  mean- 
ing. This  is  very  useful  and  pleasurable  work. 

[To    THE   TEACHER.] 

In  the  following  lists  of  prefixes  and  suffixes  let  the  pupils 
give  the  definitions  of  the  words  used  as  examples,  taking 
care  that  they  clearly  grasp  the  meanings  both  of  prefix  and 
suffix. 

Other  words  should  be  brought  in  for  analysis.  Encour- 
age pupils  to  find  as  many  words  as  possible  having  the 
same  prefix ;  also,  as  many  as  possible  having  the  same 
suffix.  In  this  way  the  habit  of  observing  words  will  be 
formed.  Besides  giving  the  definition,  the  words  should 
be  put  into  sentences.  The  full  force  of  words  cannot  be 
acquired  by  definition  alone. 


LATIN  PKEFIXES. 


A  PREFIX  is  one  or  more  letters  or  syllables  at  the  beginning  of  a 
word  to  modify  the  meaning. 


AB  [a,  abs]  —separation  :  from, 
aicdy  ;  abstain,  aMuct,  abate. 

AD  [a,  ac,  af,  ag,  al,  am,  an,  ap,  ar, 
as,  at] = nearness:  to,  towards; 
adjacent,  attract. 

AMB  [am]  — motion  round  (on  all 
sides) :  around  ;  awMtion,  am- 
putate. 

ANTE  [anti]  =in  front :  before  ;  ante- 
penult, anticipate. 

BBNR=:«eB/  benevolent. 

Bi  [bis]  =. double,  twice  ;  bicycle. 

CIRCUM  [circii]=around  ;  circum- 
uavigate,  circumstance. 

CON  [co,  col,  com,  cor]  =  union,  in- 
tensity :  with,  together ;  confront, 
complete. 

CONTRO  [contra,  counter] = opposi- 
tion :  against ;  controvert,  contra- 
band,  counterfeit. 

DE= separation  :  down,  from,  off,  or 
is  intensive ;  decline,  deflect,  of- 
fend, declaim. 

Dis  [de,  di,  dif]  ^separation  :  apart, 
opposite  of,  away;  dismiss,  de- 
mise, divert,  differ. 

Du  [duo]=two:   duet,  ow^decimal. 

Ex  [e,  ef]  =  separation  :  out,  out  of, 
from;  e.rhaust,  ezhume,  elude, 
efface. 

EXTRACT  outside  of:  beyond;  extra- 
ordinary. 


IN  (in  verbs)  [il,  im,  ir]  =  generally 
the  opposite  of  ex  :  in,  into,  upon, 
against;  induce,  impose,  irrigate, 
mpugn. 

IN  (in  adjectives  and  nouns)  — nega- 
tion :  not ;  zrreligious,  w-religion. 

I>;TER  [intel]=between ;  interfere, 
intellect. 

MALE=5a(f,  evil;  malediction. 

NoTS=not;  non-comraitt&l,  nonde- 
script, nonsense. 

OB  [o,  oc,  of,  op,  os]=  opposition: 
against,  near;  obstacle,  observe, 
omit,  occur,  offer,  oppress,  osten- 
sible. 

PEN  =r almost ;  pen  insula. 

PER  [pel]=through  (of  time  or 
space),  or  is  intensive  :  pervade, 
pe?-manent,  ^eZlucid. 

PosT=after  (in  time) ;  postprandial. 

Pn~E,=before  (in  time  or  place) ;  pre- 
cedent, preside. 

What  is  the  difference  in  mean- 
ing between  precedent  and  an- 
tecedent ? 

PREiE,n=beyond  ;  preternatural. 

PRO  [por,  pur]  =foi'th,  forward,  for; 
produce,  propel,  pronoun. 

RE  [red]=:&ac&,  again;  reduce,  re- 
impose,  redeem. 


GREEK  AND  ANGLO-SAXON  PREFIXES. 


327 


SUB  [sue,  suf ,  sug,  sum,  sup,  sus]  = 
under,  and  in  direct  relation  with 
what  is  above  it ;  often  implies 
inferiority:  under,  below,  after, 
again ;  subdue,  succeed,  suffer, 
suggest,  summon,  support,  sus- 
pend,  subaltern,  sw&divide. 


SUPER   [sur]  =  excess,  superiority: 

superfluous,     superfine,     surfeit, 

supernatural. 
TRANS  [tra,  tran~]=beyond,  across; 

transpire,  tradition,  transgress. 
ULTRA— beyond,  or  extreme:  ultra- 

montane. 


GREEK  PREFIXES. 


AMPHI  =  around,  about,  on  bot7i 
sides  ;  amphitheatre,  amphibious. 

A  [an]=not,  Without;  abyss,  anar- 
chy. 

ANA = of  ten  denotes  opposition  to 
what  is  natural :  back,  again,  up  ; 
analysis,  anachronism,  anatomy. 

ANTI  [  ant  ]= opposition  :  against ; 
anto'thesis,  a?i£arctic. 

APO  [ap]  ^separation :  in  many 
words  it  corresponds  to  the  Latin 
ab :  from,  away  ;  apostrophe,  ap- 
helion. 

CATA  =  down;  catarrh,  cataract, 
catapult. 

DIA= separation  :  through,  apart, 
across,  between  ;  diameter,  diaer- 
esis, diagram,  diacritical. 


EPI  [ep]=.upon,  for  ;  epigram,  eph- 

emeral. 
Eu  [ev]=wett,  good;  eulogy,  evange- 

list. 

TLEM.i=half  ;  hemisphere. 
H  YPER=:  excess  :    above,    over,    be- 

yond; hypertrophy,  hyperbole. 
META  [met]=over,  beyond;  meta- 

physics, metamorphose. 
MONO  =  alone  :  monogram, 


=  beside,  parasite,  paraphrase. 
PEHi=around,    near;  periphery, 

period.,  ^mhelion. 
Poij?=many,  polygon,  polyglot. 
SYN  [syl,  sym,  sys]=with,  together; 

syncope,     s^logism,     sympathy, 

system. 


ANGLO-SAXON  PREFIXES. 


A=at,  in,  on :  ahead,  abed,  aboard.  ,  FonTS,=before  ;  forearm. 

ALL    [al]— denotes    completeness:  G  AIN= against :  gainsay. 

wholly ;  aZZwise,  almighty.  Mis^denotes  error;  wrong,  wrong- 
~Rft=by,  over,  upon,  for,  or  is  in-       ly  :  misrepresent,  misrule. 

tensive  :  Reside,  ft^stride,  belie.  OFF=from  :  ojfshoot. 

FOR  [forej=awa^  from  :   forhid,  OuT=beyond :  outrun. 

forego.  OVER= denotes  superiority  or  ex- 


328 


SUFFIXES. 


cess:    above,  beyond;  oversight, 

oversleep. 
To    occurs     in     to-day,    to-night, 

where  it  means  this,  and  in  to- 

morrow,  where  it  means  on. 
UN   in  nouns,  adjectives,  adverbs, 

and  participles  denotes  negation = 


not;  unaided,  untruth:  in  verbs 
it  signifies  to  free  from;  unchain. 
UNDER  denotes  inferiority  :  un- 
der, below;  undergrowth,  under- 
wear. 

a#ams£,   back  :    wra'^stand, 
uphold. 


SUFFIXES. 

A  SUFFIX  is  one  or  more  letters  or  syllables  at  the  end  of  a  word  to 
modify  the  meaning. 

Suffixes  of  Latin  origin  are  marked  (L.) ;  those  of  Greek  origin  (Gr.) ; 
those  of  French  (F.)  ;  and  those  of  Anglo-Saxon  (A.-S.) ;  n.  rrnoun;  a.= 
adjective;  ad.  = ad  verb  ;  v.  =verb. 

ABLE  [ible,  ble]  (L.)  a.  able.     Port-    ANCE  [ancy]  (L.)n.  state.    Elegance 


able=&ble  to  be  carried.     Profit- 
able=s,\)le  to  produce  profit. 
Ac  (G-.)  a.  relating  to.     Demoni#c= 

relating  to  demons. 
ACT  (L.)  n.  state.     Celibacy = state 
of  being  single. 

n.  quality.     Accuracy = quality 
of  being  accurate. 

AGE  (F.)  n.  state.     Bon &age= state 
of  being  in  bonds. 

n.  act  of,  or  pay  for.   Storage= 
act  of,  or  pay  for,  storing. 

n.     collection    of.     Foliage  = 
leaves  of  trees  collectively. 
AL  (L.)  n.  act  of.     Removal  act  of 
removing. 

a.  relating  to.     "Regal  =  relat- 
ing to  the  king. 

AN  (L.)  n.  one  who.     Artisan = one 
who  works  at  an  art. 

a.  belonging  to.     American = 
relating  to  America. 


= state  of  being  elegant. 

n.  Constancy  —  state   of  being 
constant. 
ANE  (L.)  a.  relating  to.     Mundane 

= relating  to  this  world. 
ANT  (L. )  n.  one  who.     Attendant 
one  who  attends. 

a.      being.      Vigilant  =  being 
watchful. 

a.  ing.    Observant observz;/^. 
AR  (L.)  a.  relating  to.     Sola7*=re- 
lating  to  the  sun. 

n.    one    who.      Scholar  =  one 
who  belongs  to  a  school. 
ARD     (A.-S.)     n.     one     who     is. 
Dullaro"  =  one    who    is    dull, 
stupid. 

ARY  (L.)  n.  one  who.  Secretary = 
one  who  manages  the  business  of 
a  society. 

a.    relating  to.     Prima?-y=re- 
lating  to  the  first. 


StTFFIXES. 


n.    place    where.     Library  — 
place  where  books  are  kept. 
ATE  (L.)  a.  having  the  quality  of. 
Roseate = having  the   quality  of 
the  rose. 

n.  one  who  is.  Primate = one 
who  is  first. 

v.  perform  the  act  of.  Termi- 
nate=to  perform  the  act  of  end- 
ing. 

CULE  [cle]  (L.)  a.  little,  small  (di- 
minutive  ending).     'Reticule  =  a 
small    bag.      Vesicle  =  a     small 
blister. 
DOM   (A.-S.)   rfT  state.     Wi$dom= 

state  of  being  wise. 
ED  (A.-S.)  a.  like.     Bigoteo*=like 

a  bigot. 

EE  (F. )  n.  one  to  whom.  Referee = 
one  to  whom  a  matter  is  re- 
ferred. 

n.  one  who  is.  Absentee = one 
who  is  absent. 

n.    one   who.      Refuge  =  one 
who  flies  for  refuge. 
EER  (F.)  n.  one  who.    Volunteer^ 
one  who  offers  his  services  volun- 
tarily. 

EN  (A.-S.)  v.  to  make.  Wi&en=to 
make  wide. 

a.  made  of.  Wooden = made 
of  wood. 

n.  little,  small  (dim.  ending). 
Kitten=a,  small  cat. 
ENCE    [ency]    (L.)  n.    state.      De- 
spondency —  state    of    being   de- 
spondent. 

n.  quality.  Patience = quality 
of  being  patient. 

ENT  (L.)  n.  one  who.  Stud<?»£= 
one  who  studies. 

a.  being.  Equivalewtf  =  being 
equal. 


EB  (A.-S.)  n.  one  who.     Teacher = 
one  who  teaches. 
a.  more.     Faster=more  fast. 

ERLY  [ern]  (A.-S.)  a.  towards. 
Southern  or  southerly = to  wards 
the  South. 

a.  relating  to.  Souther/i  or 
souther^ = relating  to  the  South. 

ERY  (A.-S.)  n.  place  where.  Brew- 
ery =  a  place  for  brewing. 

ESCENCE  (L.)  n.  state  of  becoming. 
Putresce?ice  =  state  of  becoming 
putrid. 

ESCENT  (L.)  a.  becoming.  Putres- 
cent— becoming  putrid. 

EST  (A.-S.)  a.  most.  Handsomest 
most  handsome. 

ET  (A.-S.)  n.  little,  small.  Eaglet 
a  small  eagle. 

ETTE  (F.)  n.  little,  small.  Statu- 
ette=a,  small  statue. 

FUL  (A.-S.)  a.  full.  Fear/M=full 
of  fear. 

FY  (L.)  v.  to  make.  Grati/y  =  to 
make  grateful. 

HEAD  :  Same  as  Hood. 

HOOD  (A.-S.)  n.  state.  Ttoyhood= 
state  of  a  boy. 

n.  quality.  Hardi^ooo^  quality 
of  being  hardy. 

IAN  (G.  and  L.)  n.  one  who  is 
skilled  in.  Musioa?i=one  skilled 
in  music. 

n.  member  of.  Patricilrm= 
member  of  the  nobility  in  an- 
cient Rome. 

Ic  or  ICAL  (G.  and  L.)  a.  relating 
to.  Aristocratic = relating  to  aris- 
tocracy. Civic= relating  to  civil 
affairs. 

ICE  (L.)  n.  Nouns  derived  from 
adjectives  express  the  names 
of  the  quality  denoted  by  the 


SffFFttES. 


adjectives ;  as,  malice,  justice ; 
those  from  verbs  denote  that 
which  is  caused  or  produced  by 
the  action  of  the  verb  ;  as,  no- 
tice. 

Ics  (G.)  n.  names  of  sciences.  Har- 
monies = the  science  of  musical 
sounds. 

ID  (L. )  a.  having  the  quality  of.  Arid 
^having  the  quality  of  dry  ness. 

IER  (F.)  n.  one  who.  Brigad&r= 
one  who  commands  a  brigade. 

ILE  (L.)  a.  able  to  be.  Ductile= 
able  to  be  drawn  out. 

a.    relating   to.     Juven&s= re- 
lating to  youth. 

INK  (L.)  a.  relating  to.  Feline=ie- 
lating  to  a  cat. 

ION  (L.)  n.  state  of.  Mtention= 
state  of  being  attentive. 

n.  act  of.     Compuls*'0/i:=act  of 
compelling. 

ISE  [ize]   (G.)  v.  to  make   or  do. 
=  to    make   magnetic. 
= to   do  the   work   of    a 
critic. 

ISH  (A.-S.  and  F.)  a.  likeness  in  a 
small  degree.  Yellowish = some- 
what yellow.  Hoggish = more  or 
less  like  a  hog. 

v.   to  make.      AccomplM=to 
make  complete. 

ISM  (G.  and  L.)  n.  state  of.  Fa- 
naticzlm ^state  of  a  fanatic. 

n.    doctrine.      Panthe£m=the 
doctrine  that  nature  is  God. 

n.  idiom.    Galliczm=a  French 
idiom. 

IST  [st]  (G.)  n.  one  who.  Antago- 
n£s£=one  who  opposes. 

ITE  (L.)  a.  being.  Infimte=be.ing 
without  limit. 

ITY  (L.)  n.  state   of.    Secur%= 


state  of  being  secure. 
state  of  being  free. 
IVE  (L.)  a.  able  to  do.    Correctiw= 
able  to  correct. 

a.  inclined  to.  Submiss^= 
inclined  to  yield  submission. 

n.    one  who  is. 
who  is  taken. 

n.   that    which    is. 
that  which  is  sent. 
I  KIN  (A.-S.)  n.  little,  small.     Lamb- 
Am  = a  little  lamb. 
LESS  (A.-S.)  a.  without.     Toothtess 

= without  a  tooth. 
LET   (A.-S.)  n.   small.     Bingfe<=..a 

small  ring. 
LIKE  (A.-S.)  a.  resembling.     Life- 

like= resembling  life. 
LING  (A.-S.)  a.  small.    Gosling =& 

small  goose. 

LY  (A.-S.)  ad.  manner.  Candid^ 
=in  a  candid  manner. 

a.  having  the  quality  of.  Come- 
Zy=having  the  quality  of  comeli- 
ness. 

MENT  (L.)  n.  that  which  does. 
Com plement= that  which  com- 
pletes. 

n.  that  which  is.  Command- 
ment=:iha,t  which  is  command- 
ed. 

n.  act.  Present?ft€?iZ=act  of 
presenting. 

n.  state.  Exciteme7i£= state  of 
being  excited. 

MONY  (L.)  n.  state.  Matrimony = 
state  of  those  in  wedlock. 

n.  that  which.    Alimony =th&t 
which  nourishes,  an  allowance. 
NESS  (A.-S.)  n.  state.     Fearful/im 

estate  of  being  fearful. 
OCK  (A.-S.)  n.  smallness.     Hillocfc 
=a  small  bill. 


StfttttXfcS. 


(Only  a    very  few  nouns  with 
this  ending). 
OR  (L.)  n.  one  who.     Instructor = 

one  who  instructs, 
n.    that    which.     Mot0r=that 

which  produces  motion. 
ORY  (L.)  n.  place  where.     Conser- 
vatory =  a    place  for    preserving 

plants. 

a.  relating  to.     Explanatory = 

relating  to  an  explanation. 
OSE  (L. )  a.  full,  fond  of.    Comatose 

=fall  of  coma,  or  sleep.     Jocose 

=fond  of  jokes. 
Ous  (L.)  a.   foUd  of.     Facetiows= 

fond  of  facetiae. 
Ry    (F.)  n.  ^ 

act  of.  (  =act  of'  or 

>  Entry  4  place      for, 

n'  Place  I  I  entering, 

where.        J 

SHIP  (A.-S.)  n.  state.  Ha.rdLship= 
state  of  being  in  trying  circum- 
stances. 

SOME  (A.-S.)  a.  causing.  Tiresome 
—causing  tiresomeness. 

a.  being.  "Lonesome  —  being 
lonely. 

STER  (A.-S.)  n.  one  who.  Team- 
ster =  one  who  drives  a  team. 

TH  (A.-S. )  n.  that  which.  Truth= 
that  which  is  true. 

a.  part  of  a  unit.  A  fifth  (part) 
—one  of  five  equal  parts  of  a 
unit. 

n.  quality.  Wid^=quality  of 
being  wide. 

TUDE  (L.)  n.  quality.  Fortitude= 
the  quality  of  courage. 


n.    state.     Plenitude= state  of 
being  full. 
ULE  (L.)  n.   smallness.     SchedwZe 

—a  small  leaf  of  paper. 
URE  (F.   and  L.)  n.   state.     Tem- 
perature = state  of  the  air  as  to 
heat  or  cold. 

n.  act.  Departure  =.-  act  of 
going  away. 

n.   that  which  is.     Creature = 
that  which  is  created. 
WARD  (A.-S.)  ad.  towards.    Home- 

ward= to  wards  home. 
Y   (G.)   n.    kind    of    government. 
Oligarchy = a  government    by  a 
few. 

n.  science.  Chronology=the 
science  of  computing  dates. 

n.  art.  Pyrotechny=:the  art  of 
making  fire  works. 

n.  history.  Biography = a  his- 
tory of  one's  life.  Treatise  or 
description.  Geography = a  trea- 
tise about  the  earth. 
Y  (F.,  L.,  and  A.-S.)  a.  having. 
Faulty= having  faults.  Gloomy 
—having  gloom. 

n.  place  where,  or  wares. 
Grocery— place  where  the  wares 
of  a  grocer  are  kept,  also  the 
wares  themselves. 

n.  state.  Misery = state  of  a 
miser. 

Y  [ie]  n.  smallness  (dim.).    Johnny 

=little  John.    Bird&  =  littJe  bird. 

(The   use    of  such    diminutives, 

especially  of  proper  names,  is  silly 

j  and  otherwise  objection  able.) 


With  the  following  stems  and  the  prefixes  [in  brackets]  and  suffixes 
on  pp.  325-330  form  as  many  words  as  you  can  ;  define  each,  telling 
the  significance  of  prefix,  stem,  and  suffix ;  also  inquire  whether  the 
common  meaning  differs  from  the  etymological  one. 


332 


STEMS. 


STEMS. 


The  following  list  comprises  the  stems  required  by  the  Regents  of 
the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York  in  Elementary  English.  The 
work  of  the  pupils  should  be  (1)  to  learn  the  various  meanings  of  the 
stem,  and  (2)  to  give  definitions  of  the  words  below  which  contain  the 
stem.  In  giving  definitions  care  should  be  taken  that  the  primary 
meaning  of  the  stem  is  seen  clearly.  Observe  the  models. 


AG  (ig)  —  act,  urge,  force,  drive 
[ambi,  con,  counter,  ex,  in,  trans, 
re]. 

Model :  Agile  =  able  to  act  ; 
hence  active. 

Model:  ~Etxigent=forcing  out; 
Jience  urgent. 

Model:  Ambiguous  =  driving 
around;  Tience  equivocal,  doubt- 
ful. Agent,  agitate,  active,  exact, 
actor,  counteract,  coagulate,  prod- 
igal,  trans'ocZ(ion),  enact,  actuate, 
action,  cogent,  actress,  actuary, 
actual,  actuality,  reaction),  re- 
enact,  reagent. 

What  is  the  difference  in  mean- 
ing between  agile  and  active  ? 
ALT = high  [ex]. 

Model :  Altar,  a  high  table  for 
sacrifice.    Altitude,  exaltation). 
AxiM=mind,   spirit,    passion    [in, 
magn,  equ,  re,  un  for  unus]. 

Model :   Animosity = quality  of\ 
being  full  of  passion.     Animate,  | 
rearawzate,     unanimity,     unani- 
mous,   magnanimous,    equanim- 
ity, pusillam'w?ous,  animation. 
ANN  (enn)=year  [bi,  centum,  mille, 
per,  super]. 

Model:  Annu&l=relating  to  a 


year,  yearly.  Annals,  annuity, 
biennial,  centennial,  perennial, 
superannuated,  millennium,  an- 
niversary, quadrennial. 

APT  (aptat,  ept)  =  fit,  make  suita- 
ble [ad,  in]. 

Model:  Adapt = to  ft  to.  Adap- 
tation, adept,  inop£[(i)tude],  apt- 
itude, adaptability. 

BAS  (bass) = low  [a,  de]. 

Model:  Abasement .= state  of 'be- 
ingbrought  low.  (De)  base(ment), 
bass,  basso,  bassoon,  bass-relief. 

BREV  (brevi,   brief)  =  short    [ab]. 
Model :  AWreviate=to  shorten. 
Ab&rmation,    brerity,    breviary, 
brecet. 

CAD  (cas,  cid)  =  fall  [ad,  de,  ob]. 

Model :  Accident  =  that  which 

falls  to  one,  as   by  chance.     (De) 

cadence,  case,  dea'rfuous,  casual, 

decay,  occasion,  Occident,  cascade. 

CAP  (capt,  ceipt,  ceit,  ceive,  cept, 
cip)— take,  seize,  hold  [ad,  ante, 
con,  de,  ex,  in,  per,  re,  sub]. 

Model:  dative—  one  who  is 
taken.  (In)  capable,  capacious, 
(in)  capacity,  reape,  antkzpate, 
receipt,  accept  (able)  (ation);  (con) 
(de)  (ex)  (in)  (per)  (re)  caption; 


STEMS. 


333 


(in)  (re)  client;  (con)  (de)  ceit, 
deceitful ;  (con)  (re)  enable  ; 
(de)  (re)  ceixer  ;  susc^ible  ;  (con) 
(de)  (re)  ceive  ;  captor,  capture. 

CARN  (charn)=:flesh  [in]. 

Model :  Carnal— pertaining  to 
the  flesh.  Carnival,  carnage, 
(in)  carnation,  incarnate,  carnel- 
ian,  cannvorous,  charnel,  car- 
rion. 

CED  (ceed,  cess)=go,  yield  [ab,  ad, 
ante,  con,  ex,  inter,  pro,  retro, 
se,  super]. 

Model:  Intercede = to  go  between. 
(se)  (pre)  (ac)  («on)  (retro)  (super) 
cede;  (se)  (ac)  (pro)  (retro)  (sue) 
cm(ion)  ;  (abs)  (ex)  cess ;  (ante) 
(pre)  cedent ;  (ex)  (pro)  ceed. 

CENT = hundred. 

Model :  Centenary —relating  to 
one  hundred. 

CENT = percent  (age),  century,  cen- 
tennial, centurion,  centi  (pede) 
(grade). 

CING  (cinct)r=  enclose  [sub,  super]. 
Model ;     Ci?icture=that  which 
encloses. 

Model :  Precinct— a  district  en- 
closed in  front,  that  is  on  the  bor- 
der, as  by  a  fence.  Succinct,  sur- 
cingle, succinct  (ly)  (ness). 

CLIN    (clen,    clinat,    cliv)  =  lean, 
bend,  slope  [ad,  de,  in,  pro,  re]. 
Model :    Proclivity  ^quality   of 
leaning  forward.      (De)  (in)   (re)  I 
dine  ;  (ac)  (de)  (pro)  clivity  ;  (de) 
(in)  (re)  clination  ;  decision. 

COR  (cord,  cour)=heart  [ad,  con, 
dis,  en,  re]. 

Model :  Cordial=relating  to  the 
heart. 

Model:  A  cordial= a  stimulant 
for  the  heart. 


Model :  A  cordial  greeting = a 
hearty  greeting.  (Ac)  (con)  (dis) 
(re)  cord ;  (dis)  (en)  cour&ge 
(ment) ;  core,  cordiality. 

CUB  (curat)= care  [ad,  pro,  se,  sine]. 
Model :  Security = state  of  being 
without  care.  (Pro)  (se)  (sine)  cure ; 
security,  (ac)  curate,  accuracy, 
procurement,  cwrious(ly),  cwios- 
ity ;  (as)  (in)  swre  ;  (as)  (in)  sur- 
ance.  % 

CUKK  (cour(s),  curs) = run  [dis,  ex, 
in,  inter,  ob,  pre,  re,  sub]. 

Model  :  Precursor =that  which 
runs  ahead.  (In)  (oc)  (re)  cur ; 
(dis)  (re)  (inter)  course ;  (in)  (ex) 
cursion  ;  succor,  discwraive,  cwr- 
sory,  (con)  current ;  courier, 
course,  currency. 

DiCT— speak  [bene,  contra,  e,  inter, 
male,  pre,  vale]. 

Model:  Predict=to  speak  be- 
forehand. (Contra)  (inter)  (pre) 
dict(ion) ;  (bene)  (male)  diction  ; 
edict,  v&ledictory,  dictionary,  dic- 
tate, verdict,  addicted,  diction, 
dictator. 

DIGN= worthy  [con,  dis,  in]. 

Model :  Dignify=to  make  wor- 
thy. Deign,  indignant,  condign, 
disdain,  (in)  dignity,  dignitary. 

Due  (duct)  =  lead,  bring  [ab,  ad, 
con,  de,  in,  intro,  pro,  re,  se, 
trans]. 

Model :  Product=t7iat  which  is 
brought  forth.  (Tra)  (se)  (e)  (ad) 
(con)  (de)  (in)  (pro)  (re)  duce  ; 
(se)  (intro)  (ab)  (ad)  (con)  (de)  (in) 
(pro)  (re)  $wc£ion  ;  duke,  duct, 
conduit ;  (ab)  (ad)  (con)  (in)  (de) 
(pro)  duct ;  ductile,  <?i£cftlity  ;  (de) 
(re)  dfwcible  ;  (se)  (intro)  (ad)  (con) 
(de)  (in)  (pro)  ductiv*  ;  introduce, 


334 


STEMS. 


introductory,    introducer,    ducal, 
ducat,  duchy,  duchess,  educate. 

EQU= equal  [ad,  un]. 

Model :  Adequate =haring  the 
quality  of  being  equal ;  hence, 
sufficient.  Equal,  equivalent,  , 
equanimity,  f^wivocal,  equinox, 
equality,  equation,  equilibrium, 
equivocate. 

FA  (f,  fant,  fat)  =  speak  [ad,  in, 
multi,  ne,  prej. 

Model:  Ineffable = not  able  to 
be  spoken  out.  .Fable,  /abulous, 
/ate(ful),  affable,  infant,  infancy, 
infantile,  in/<m£ine ;  (multi)  (ne) 
farious  ;/atal  (ism)  (1st),  preface, 
•prefatory,  infantry. 

FAC  (fact,  feet,  fic)=make,  do  [ad,  I 
con,  counter,  de,  dis.  ex,  in,  per, 
pro,  re,  super]. 

Model  :  factory = a  place  uhere 
things  are  made.  Fact,  faction, 
facile ;  (af)  (in)  (de)  (ef)  (per)/«*  ; 
(af)  (in)  (con)  (de)  (per)  (re)/<?c«on; 
effectual,  arti/u-e,  artificial,  facto- 
tum; (ef)  (pro)  (de)ficient  ;  dif- 
jfcult(y),  ef/fcacious,  suffice,  fash- 
ion, feasible,  counterfeit,  profit, 
feature,  surfeit. 

FER  (lat)=bear,  carry  [circum,  con, 
de,  dis,  ex,  in,  ob,  pre,  pro,  re, 
sub,  trans]. 

Model  :    Fertile = able  to  bear.  \ 
(Snf )  (de)  (in)  (con)  (of)  (dif)  (pre)  ! 
(prof)  (re)  (trans)  fer ;   (suf)  (cir-  ' 
cum)  (de)  (in)  (con)  (pre)  (re)  (dif) 
(trans) /<rrence;  (di)  (col)  (pro)  (ob) 
(re)  (trans)  (e)  late. 

FID  (fi,  fy)=faith,  trust  [ad,  con, 
de,  dis,  in,  per]. 

Model  :  Infidel=one  who  does 
not  believe.  Confide  ;  (in)  fidelity, 
diffident,  defj/,  de/tant,  de/wrace, 


diffidence,  confidence,  perfidious, 
af/iance. 

FIN  (finit)=end,  limit  [ad,  con,  de, 
in,  re,  un]. 

Model :  Final=pertaining  to 
the  end.  Finish,  fine,  finance,  fin- 
ancial ;  (con)  (de)  (re)  fine  ;  (de) 
(in)^;ritive,  de^/<ition,  definable. 

FRANG  (fract,  frag)=break  [in  re]. 

Model :    Fraction— that  which 

is  broken  off.    Fragile,  fragment, 

fracture,  infraction,  refractory), 

refrangible. 

FUND  (fus,  fut)=melt,  pour  [ad, 
con,  dis,  ex,  in,  pro,  re,  sub, 
trans] . 

Model  :  Fusible = able  to  be 
melted.  (Af)  (con)  (dif)  (in)  (pro) 
(trans)  (ef)  (re)  (suf)  fuse  ;  (af) 
(con)  (dif)  (in)  (pro)  (trans)  (ef) 
(suf) fusion  ;  confound,  refund, 
refute,  futile. 

GEN  (gend,  gener)=kind,  race, 
class  [de,  in,  pro,  re]. 

Model :  Degenerate =to  let  the 
race  down.  Genuine,  generous, 
ge?iial,  engender,  regenerate,  pro- 
geny,  gender. 

GRAD  (gress)=step,  walk,  go  [ad, 
con,  de,  dis,  ex,  in,  pro,  retro, 
trans]. 

Model :  Retrograde =to  go  back- 
ward. Grade,  gradual,  grad- 
uate ;  (de)  (retro)  grade ;  (ag) 
(con)  (di)  (e)  (in)  (pro)  (trans) 
gre**;  (ag)  (di)  (e)  (in)  (pro) 
(trans)  (retro)  gression ;  ingredi- 
ent, aggress  (or)  (ive). 

GRAPH  (gram) = write  [ana,  dia, 
epi]. 

Model :  1Zpigraph=a  writing 
upon  a  building  denoting  it*  in<f. 
Graft,  graphite,  graphically)  ; 


STEMS. 


335 


(epi)  (ana)  (dia)   (pro)  (dia)  (tele) 
gram,  grammar. 
GRAT  (grati,  gre)= pleasure,  favor. 

Model :  Gratify = to  cause  pleas- 
ure. Gratuitous,  gratis,  grace, 
congratulate,  ingratiate  ;  (un) 
grateful,  gracious,  gratitude, 
gratification,  (d  i  s)  a^r^eable) 
(ment). 
HOSPIT  (host)  =  guest,  host  [in]. 

Model :  Hospitality = quality  of 
being  kind  to  guests  [strangers]. 
JTost(ess),  hospital,  (in)hospitable, 
7wtel,  hostler. 

JAC  (ject)— lie,  throw,  hurl  [ab,  ad, 
con,  de,  ex,  in,  inter,  ob,  pro,  re, 
sub]. 

Model :  Adjective  =  a  word 
thrown  with  another  to  modify  it. 
(Ab)  (de)  (e)  (in)  (inter)  (ob)  (pro) 
(re)  (sub)  ject(ion)  ;  adjacent, 
jetsam,  jut,  conjecture. 
JUNCT  (jug)=join  [ad,  con,  dis,  in, 
sub]. 

Model :  Subjug&te  —  to  join  by 
bringing  under.  To  subjw^ate  a 
people  is  to  unite  with  them  in 
such  a  way  that  they  are  under  ; 
conjugal,  conjugate,  conjugation', 
(con)  (in)  junction,  subjunct- 
ive. 

JuR=law,  right,  swear  [ab,  ad,  con, 
in,  per]. 

Model :  Jurist  =  one  who  is 
versed  in  law. 

Model:  Abjure=to  swear  away 
from;    to  renounce    upon    oath. 
(Ad)  (con)  (in)  (per)  jure  ;  jury ; 
(in)  (per)  jury  ;  jurisdiction. 
LEG = send  [ad,  con,  de,  re]. 

Model :  Legate=one  who  is  sent. 
Legacy,  allege ;  (de)  (re)  legate 
(ion)) 


LEG  (lect)==  gather,  choose  [con,  dis, 
ex,  pre,  se]. 

Model :  Prediction  =  pre  +  di 
Election— a  choosing  apart  before- 
hand, Jience  a  previous  liking. 
"Eclectic,  legiont  di%ent,  elig- 
ible, elegant ;  (col)  (se)  lect(ion). 

LIBER— free  [de,  in]. 

Model :  Liber  ate = to  make  free. 
Liber(al)(ity,  il&forality,  liber- 
ally, deliver,  livery. 

LIN = flax,  line  [de]. 

Model:  Linen =mode  of  flax, 
lining,  line,  linseed,  delineate, 
lineage,  lineal,  linear,  linea- 
ment, crinofeVie. 

LITER = letter  [ad,  in,  ob]. 

Model :  Illiterate =not  skilled  in 
letters,  Jience  unlearned.  Liter- 
ate, literature,  lite?'al(ly),  liter- 
ary, alfo'feration,  obliterate. 

Loc= place  [col,  dis]. 

Model ;  dislocate=to  put  out  of 
place.  Locate,  locality)  (ize), 
locomotion  ;  (col)  («lis)  location  ; 
focomotive. 

LOG— speech,  word,  science,  de- 
scription [ana,  apo,  cata,  deca, 
ec,  epi,  eu]. 

Model :  ~Eulogy=a  speech  or 
writing  in  commendation  of  a 
person.  (Ana)  (apo)  (cata)  (pro) 
logue  ;  (il)  logic(al),  syllogism. 

LOQU  (locut)=r speak,  talk  [ad,  con, 
ex,  circnm.  ob]. 

Model  :  Loquacious  =  inclined 
to  talk.  (Al)  (circum)  (e)  locution, 
eloquent ;  (col)  (ob)  (soli)  loquy  ; 
ventrifo^wist,  colloquial. 

LUD  (lus)=:play,  laugh  at  [ad,  col, 
de,  e,  in,  inter,  pre]. 

Model :  Ludicrous  =  producing 
laugtiter.  (H)  («W)  (al)  (Wl)  (4) 


336 


STEMS. 


(pre)  (inter)  lude-,  (al)  (col)  (de) 
(e)  (il)  lution  ;  (al)  (de)  (e)  (il)  lus- 
ive. 

MAGN  (maj,  maxim) =great. 

Model :  Magnitude  =  state    of  \ 
being  great.     Magnate,  magnify, 
major,     mayor,      magnanimous, 
magnificent,  maxim,  maximum.  \ 

MAN = hand  [a,  ex]. 

Model :  Ma?iage  =  to  take  in 
hand.     .Mmual,  man&cle,  msmu-  \ 
script,      wnanuensis,     manifest,  ; 
wet/mfacture,  maintain,  emanci-  \ 
pate,  maneuver,  manner,  manu- 
mit, maniple,  ?/i«/dpulate. 

MAR  =  the  sea  [sub,  trans,  ultra]. 
Model:     Mariner  =  one     w?u> 
gains  his  living  by  the  sea.     Mar- 
ine, maritime;  (sub)  (trans)  (ultra) 
marine. 


MATER  (matr)= mother. 

Model:  Matricide=the  murder 
of  a  mother  or  the  murderer  of  a 
mother.  Maternal,  matrimony, 
m«tfron(al)  (ly). 

MEDI— middle  [in,  inter]. 

Model :  Mediation=act  of  me- 
diating. Median,  medium  (im)- 
mediate,  mediation,  mediatorial, 
medieval,  mediocre,  mediocrity, 
meridian,  mean. 

MENT = mind  [de]. 

Model :  Mental=pertaining  to 
tlie  mind.  Mentality,  mentally, 
mention,  demented.. 

MERC^trade,  reward  [com]. 

Model  :  Mercenary = serving  for 
a  reward.  Commerce,  commer- 
cial, m^-cantile,  mercy,  merchant, 
merchandise. 


From  this  point  the  pupil  should  continue  the  work  with- 
out the  model. 


MERG  (mers)  =  dip,   plunge,  sink, 

mingle  [e.  in,  sub],  (e  final,  ence, 

ion). 
METER     (metr)  =  measure     [dia, 

peri  (y),  syn]. 
MIGR  =  wander    [e,     in,    trans.], 

ant,    ate,     ion    (e     final,    ency, 

ory). 

What  are  moratory  birds  ? 
Can  a  person  be  both  an  emi- 
grant and   an  imra^rant   at  the 

same  time  ? 
MIR   (mar,    mira,  mirat)  =  wonder 

[ad],  (age,  bility,  ble,  cle,  ion,  ly, 

ons,  (r)or,  vel). 
MITT  (miss,  mit)— send   [ad,  con, 

dis,  e,   inter,   ob,  per,  pro,  re, 


trans],  (age,  ance,  ary,  ee,  ent, 

ible,  ile,  ion,  ive). 

Difference  between  admittance 

and  adwmion  ? 
MON  (monit,    monu)  =  advise  [ad, 

pre,  sub],  (al,  ary,  ion,  ish,  ive, 

ment,  or,  ster). 
MORT  =  death     [in],    (al,    (at)ion, 

gage,  ify,  ity,  ize,  ly,  (u^ary). 
MOR  (mot,  mo)  — move  [con,  e,  in, 

pro,  re],  (able,  ably,  e  final,  er, 

ion,  ive,  ment,  or). 

What   does  -promoted  mean  to 

you  V 
j  MuLTi=many  (er.  form,  ply,  tude, 

plic  +  at(e)+ion,  pli+er). 
MUN  (munit)=:  fortify  (ion,  ment). 


STEMS. 


337 


KAT=born  [in],  (al,  e,  ive,  ure). 
'Of  what  city  and  town  are  you 

a  native  ? 
-'NAV  (nau,  naus,  navig)=ship  [cir- 

cum],  (able,  al,  ate,  ic,  ion,  or, 

ous). 
Why    does    the  nation    of    a 

ship  produce  nausea,  ? 
NOT  (gnis,  gnit,  gno,  gnomin,  gnor, 

no,  nomin,  noun),    [con,  de,  in, 

re)=known,    name    (able,  ance, 

ant,  ary,  ate,  ble,  bility,  bly,  e 

final,  ice,  ion,  ize,  ous). 
NUMER  (numerat,  num)=  number 

[e,  in,  super  J,  (able,  al,  ary,  ate, 

er,  ic,  ion,  less,  ous). 
NUNCI  (nunciat,  nounce),   [ad,  de, 

e,   pro,    re]  =  tell  (e    final,  ion, 

ment). 
OcuL=eye  [bin,  in],  (ar,  ate,  ion, 

1st,  ly). 
PAR  (pair,  parat)=get  ready  [com, 

in,  pre,  re,  se],  (able,  ade,  ate,  e 

'final,  ion,  ity,  ly). 

Has  your  school  the  apparatus 

needed    for    teaching    physics, 

chemistry,  geography  ? 
PARL=speak  (ance,  ey,    [iajment, 

or,  ary). 
PART  (partit)  — divide,   share   [ad, 

con,     de,     in,     re],     (ee,     ion, 

(n)er,  y). 
PAST=feed  [re],  (al,  or,  ure). 

What  is  a  pastel  ? 
PAT  (pass)— suffer  [con,  in],  (ate, 

ible,  (i)ent,  (i)ence,  ive,  ion,  ly). 
Does  a  passionate  person  suf- 
fer? 

When  is  a  person  compassion- 
ate ? 
PATER  (patr,  patri)=: father  [con, 

ex],  age,  arch,  ate,  ion,  ism,  (i)st, 

ly,  mony,  (n)al,  (n)ity,  on. 


PED=foot  [ex,  1m],  (al,  bi,  (dl)er, 
(e)stal,  (i)cle,  ion,  (i)ment),  ite. 

What  has  an  im^doYment  of 
speech  to  do  with  the  foot  ?  Has 
the  word  required  a  broader  or  a 
narrower  meaning  ? 

PELL  (pel,  puls)  = drive,  urge  [con, 
dis,  ex,  im,  pro,  re]  (ate,  e,  ion, 
ive,  ory). 

How  many  times  a  minute  does 
your  pulse  beat  ?  What  is  an  im- 
pulsive  person  ?  A  repulsive  one? 

PEND  (pens)  =  hang,  weigh,  pay 
[ad,  con,  de,  dis,  ex,  in]  (able, 
ant,  ary,  ate,  ence,  ent,  er,  ile, 
ion,  (i)ous,  ity,  ium,  ive,  ly, 
ness). 

To  ascertain  the  value  of  a 
large  pile  of  silver  coins,  would 
our  Government  count  or  weigh 
them  ?  Why  does  our  Govern- 
ment pay  pensions  ?  What  Is  a 
perpendicular  ?  How  does  it  af- 
fect the  running  time  of  a  clock 
to  raise  the  ^no'ulum  ? 

PET  (petit,  peat)=ask  [ad,  com,  in, 
re],  (e  final,  ed,  ence,  ency,  ent, 
ion,  ity,  ive,  ly,  or,  (u)ous,  us). 

PHIL  (philo)=fond,  loving. 

PLE  (plet,  plen,  plent,   ply)=full 
[con,    de,    re,   sub],    (ance,    ant, 
ary,  e,  ful,  ion,  ish,  (i)tude,  ly, 
ment). 
What  is  a  ^fenipotentiary  ? 

PLIC  (plicat,  plicit,  pli,  ply,  plex, 
pie,  play,  ploy)=fold  [ad,  con, 
du,  ex,  in],  (able,  ant,  ate,  e,  fy, 
ion,  ity,  ly,  ment,  mis,  multi, 
sub). 

What  is  it  to  replevy  goods  ? 
Do  you  see  the  idea  of  folding  in 
the  words  suppfo'cate  and  suppl- 
ant ? 


338 


STEMS. 


PON  (pos,  po*it) =place  [con,  de, 
dis,  ex,  in,  juxta,  ob,  post,  pro, 
Hub,  trans],  (ary,  e,  ent,  er,  ion, 
ite,  ire,  ory). 

Do  you  like  to  write  cornyxy*/£- 
ions  V  He  made  an  apyx/#ite  re- 
ply. Wljat  does  tkat  mean  ? 

fportatj-  carry  (pur),  [con,  de, 
dig,  ex,  in,  pro,  re,  sub,  trans], 
(able,  age,  ance,  ant,  er,  folio, 
ion,  ]y,  manteau,  ment,  ness). 

Distinguish  between  tra- 
transfer,  and  translate;  all  Lav- 
ing the  idea  of  currying. 

r— gate  [in,  ob],  (al,  er,  ico, 
nn0)< 

The  op/x/r?une  moment  is  when 


ance,  ant,  e,  el,   ence,   ent,   leg, 
ion,  ive,  or,  ous). 

SoL=alone  [de],  (e,  o,  (i)tude,  ate, 
ion.  ary,  ly,  ion,  (i  loqui/e,  (i  lo- 
quy). 

.  Epic,  spectat)  =  look 
[ad,  circum,  de,  per,  pro,  re,  re- 
tro, Bub],  ((i)rnen,  (i)oas,  (ujous, 
able,  acity,  (a)cles,  ive,  or,  (r)um, 
er). 

(spirit)  =  breathe  [ad,  con, 
ex,  in,  per,  sub,  trans],  (acy,  ant, 
ate,  e,  ion,  it,  ity,  or,  ory,  (u)al, 

(UJOUS). 

What   common   idea    is  there 
between    tpirilu&l    and 
ous  ? 


tJje  fjate  ig  open  and  the  thing  to    STJU;  (hlruct,   stray)  =  build  [con, 


be  done  lies  near  (obj ;  h< 
easy  access,  convenient. 
PuiM  (prin,  pri)= first  (e,  er,  acy, 
«•/,  ate,  cip(al)  (le),  (it)ive,  ity, 

iy. 

Difference   between    principal 
and  7/rmcipIe. 

SACB  (tecr)  =  holy  [con,   de,  ex], 
(able,  (a;ment,  ate,  (il;ege,  (i;fice, 
dotal). 
Sci-know    [con,    omni,    pri],   (e, 

ence,  ent,  entific,  ly,  ness,  ons). 
ScuiJi  (script) —write   [ad,  circum, 
con,  de,  in,  pre,  pro,  re,  trans], 
(e,  ble,  ion,  urej. 

.-  one  good  reason   why  a 
pupil  should  not  #m/>ble. 

r  (Bens)=feel,  perceive,  think 

[ad,  con,  dig,  in,  non,  re],  (al,  ate, 

,-jt,  ibility,  ion,  ment, 

less,    ible,    ibly,  ness,    ical,  ion, 

f;   (secut.   guit)  =  follow  [con, 
*«,    ob,    per,    pro,   sub],    (able, 


de,  in,  mis,  ob,  super],  (al,  er, 

ion,  ity,  ive,  ment,  ure). 
SUM  (sumpt)  =  take  [ad,  con,  in, 

pre,  re],   (able,  e,  er,   ion,   ive, 

(u)ary,  (u)ous). 
TANG  (ting,  tact,  tag,  tig,  tegr,  tain) 

=touch  [ab(s),  ad,  con.  de.  in, 
.";,  sub],  (able,  al,  ent,  ion, 

ment,  (u)ous,  (ujity,  ile). 

one      [tri],    (ariim(ous)(ity), 

(i)form,  ion,  ique,  it,  ite,  (i)vere- 

(al)  (ity). 
UT  (us,  ntil)=uBe  [in],  (ensil,  ilize, 

ful,  ility,  ness). 
Voc  (vocat)— call  [ad,  con,  ex,  in, 

pro,  equi,  re],  (able,  acy,  al,  e, 

ion,  iBt,  ive,  ize). 
VJD  (vis)=see  [ad,  ex,  in,  pro,  re, 

super],   (able,  age,  ary,  e,  ence, 

ent,  ible,  ion,  (i)ous,  it,  ness,  or, 

(ujal). 
YJ(VJ  (vit,   victu)  — live  [re,  super, 

(sur)],  (acity,  id,   (ijsection,    aL 

ity,  or,  and,  (i)al). 


STEMS  IN  ADVANCED  ENGLISH. 


339 


STEMS  REQUIRED  BY  THE  REGENTS  IN 
THEIR  COURSE  OF  ADVANCED  ENG- 
LISH. 


APER  (apert)=open  [L.  aperire]. 

ARCH=beginning,  chief,  rule,  gov- 
ernment [G.  arche]. 

ART  (ert)— skill,  method  [L.  ars]. 

AUD  (audit,  ed,  ey)=hear    [L.  au- 
dire]. 

AuR=gold  [L.  aurum]. 

B  AT = beat  [L.  batere]. 

Brr=bite  [A.-S.  bitan]. 

CANT  (cent,  chant) = sing  much  or 
often  [L.  cantare]. 

CAPITA  head  [L.  caput], 

CELER=hasten  [L.  celerare]. 

CoMMOD=:fit,     suitable    [L.    corn- 
modus  ;  con  +  modus,  measure]. 

COMMUN= common  [L.  comniunis  ; 
con  +  munus,  duty]. 

CORON= crown  [L.  corona]. 

CORPUS  (corpor,  corpu,  cors,  corps) 
=body  [L.  corpus]. 

CRED    (credit) =believe     [L.     cre- 
dere]. 

CYCL  (cyclo)= circle  [G.  cuclos]. 

DAT   (dit,    don,    donat)=give    [L. 
dare ;  donare]. 

DENT=tooth  [L.  dens]. 

Dl=day  [L.  dies]. 

DOMIN  (dominat)=rule  [L.  domi- 
nare]. 

DORM     [dormit)  Asleep    [L.     dor- 
mire]. 

PAC  (fie) = face  [L.  facies]. 

FELic=happy  [L.  felix]. 

FESS=acknowledge  [L.  fateri]. 

FORM =shape  [L.  forma]. 
=: strong  [L.  fortis]. 


GER  (gerat,  gest,  gestat,  gesticulat, 

gist) = carry  on,  bear  [L.  gerere  ; 

gestare,  gesticulari]. 
GRAN— gran  [L.  granum]. 
GROSS  (gro,   gros)=fat,  large    [L. 

grossus] . 

HoR=rhour  [L.  hora]. 
INTEG=:  whole,  entire  [L.  integer  ; 

in = not,  and  tangere,  touch]. 
JUDIC=: judge  [judicari]. 
LINGU  (langu)= tongue  [L.  lingua]. 
MAJOR  (may or) = greater  [L.  major]. 
MAN  (mans,  main,   inn)—  stay  [L. 

manere]. 

MEDIC   (medicat)  =heal   [L.   medi- 
care]. 

MENS= measure  [L.  mensus]. 
PAN  (pant) = all,  whole  [G.  pas]. 
PAN- bread  [L.  panis]. 
PAR  (pair,  peer) = equal  [L.  par]. 
PASS = step  [L.  passus]. 
PEN  (pun)=punishment,  pain  [L. 

poena]. 

PETR=rock  [G.  petra]. 
PHON=sound  [G.  phonos]. 
PHYS  (physi)= nature  [G.phusis]. 
PICT  (paint,    pig)=paint   [L.  pin 

gere]. 
PLAC    (plais,    pleas)  =  please     [L. 

placere], 
PLE  (plen,  plet,  plent,  pli,  ply)= 

full  [L.  plere  ;  plenus]. 
PLUM=:feather  [L.  pluma]. 
PLUMB  (plum)=lead  [L.  plumbum]. 
POT  (potat)= drink  [L.  potare]. 
PoTENT=powerful  [L.  potens]. 


340 


STEMS   IN   ADVANCED  ENGLISH. 


PBEHEND     (prehens,    pris)= seize, 

grasp  [L.  prehendere]. 
PUNG  (punct)— prick  [L.  pungere.] 
QUADRA  square  [L.  quadra]. 
QUANT = how  much  [L.  quantus]. 
QUER  (quest,    quis,    quisit)=seek, 

ask  [L.  quaerere].  __ j> 

QUIET  (qui,  quit)  =  quiet  [L.  quiet-    SUAD   (suas)= advise,   entreat 

USJ-  suaderej. 


SON  (sono)=sound  [L.  sonarc]. 
SoRT=lot  [L.  sors]. 
SpECi=kind  [L.  species]. 
STELL=star  [L.  stella]. 
STRING  (strain,  strait,  strict)=bind, 

draw  tight  [L.  stringere], 
Su=self  [L.  sui]. 


RADI  (radiat, 
radiare]. 


r  ay) = emit  rays  [L. 


SURG  (surrect)=rise  [L.  surgere= 

sub  +  regere] . 
TAIL  (toll) -cut  [F.  tailler]. 


TANG  (tact,  tag,  tig,   ting)=touch 
[L.  tangere]. 


RAP  (rapt,  rav)=seize  [L.  raperej. 

RAT = think,  determine  [L.  ratio]. 

REG    (rect,    regul,    regulat,    rig)=        t_  ^^^. 

rule,  govern  ;  straight  [L.  regere  ;  I  TEG  (tect)— cover  [L.  tegere]. 

regulare;  rectus,  straight].  TEMPOR=time  [L.  tempus]. 

Rn>  (ris)=;  laugh  [L.  ridere]. 
Rrv  (ri vat)  =  stream,   flow   [L.    ri 

vus] 


ROG    (rogat)=ask,   demand,   ques- 
tion [L.  rogarej. 
RUPT= break  [L.  rumpere]. 
SAL=salt  [L.  sal]. 


TEND=(tens,  tent)  stretch  [L.  ten- 

dere]. 
TEST   (testat)= witness  [L.  testari]. 


TORT    (tor,    tors)=twist    [L.   tor- 

guere] . 

TRACT = draw  [L.  trahere]. 
TRIT  (tri)=rub  [L.  terere]. 


[L. 


SAL    (sail,    saltat,  sault,  sil)=leap  ;  TRUD  (trus)=thrust  [L.  trudere]. 

UND  (undat,  undulat)=flow,  swell 

as  a  wave  [L.  undare,  undatus]. 
VAD  (vas):=go  [L.  vadere]. 
VAL=be   strong,    be    of    use    [L. 

valere]. 

VEN  ( vent) = come  [L.  venire]. 
VERT  (vers)=turn  [L.  vertere]. 
Vi  (vey,  viat,  vog)=way,  road  [L. 

viare] . 


[L.  salire  ;  saltare]. 
SANCT    (saint)  =  made    sacred 

sancire]  . 

SAT=enough,   sufficient    [L.  satis]. 
SCOP    (scept)=  watch,     look      [G. 

scopos]  . 

SEC  (sect)^cut  [L.  secarej. 
SEN=old  [L.  senex]. 

serve    [L.     servare  ; 


servirej.  Vic  (vice)= change  [L.  vicis]. 

SIST  (st,  sta,  stam,  stant,  stat,  stit,  j  VOLV  (volu,  volut)=roll  [L.    vol- 
stitit)=  place    [L.  sistere  ;  stare  ;  j      vere]. 
statuere].  I  VOT=V»W  [L,  vovere]. 


UNION  OF  AFFIX  TO  STEM.  341 


UNION  OF  AFFIX  TO  STEM, 

When  a  prefix  is  joined  to  a  stem  no  change  of  letters 
occurs  if  an  easy  pronunciation  results.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, letters  are  brought  together  which  cannot  be  pro- 
nounced easily  in  close  connection.  This  often  happens  when 
the  final  consonant  of  a  prefix  and  the  initial  consonant  of  the 
stem  are  made  with  different  vocal  organs  ;  as  d  before  c  and 
g,  in  accede  and  aggravate  ;  and  also,  less  often,  when  they 
are  made  with^the  same  organs  ;  as  d  before  t  in  attract,  or  b 
before  p  in  oppress.  An  easy  utterance  is  secured  in  many 
words  by  changing  the  final  consonant  of  the  prefix  to  the 
initial  consonant  of  the  stem.  This  change  is  called  assimi- 
lation. The  changes  affecting  the  final  consonants  of  prefixes 
are  as  follows : 


AB,  in  some  words,  drops  b  before 
b,  and  adds  s  before  c  and  t. 

AD  assimilates  d  before  c,  f,  g,  1, 
m,  n,  p,  r,  s,  t ;  in  some  words 
d  is  dropped  before  s,  and  in 
others  it  is  changed  to  s  be- 
fore p. 

CON  assimilates  n  before  1  and  r ;  is 
changed  to  m  before  b,  m,  p  ;  and 
is  dropped  before  a,  e,  i,  g,  h. 

IN  assimilates  n  before   1   and  r ; 


drops  n  before  g  ;  and  changes  n 

to  m  before  b,  m,  p. 
INTER  assimilates  r  before  1. 
SUB  assimilates  b  before   c,    f,  g, 

m,  p ;  changes  b  to  s  before  p,  t, 

and  drops  b  before  s. 
TRANS  becomes  tra  before  d,  and 

tran  before  s. 
SYN    assimilates   n  before    1,    m  | 

changes  n  to  m  before  p,  and  to  f 

before  t. 


Suffixes  are  joined  to  stems  without  change,  excepting  such 
as  are  explained  by  the  Rules  on  pages  29  and  30,  and  some 
stems  ending  in  a  vowel  when  a  suffix  beginning  with  the 
same  vowel  is  added,  in  which  case  one  vowel  is  dropped ; 
as,  America  +  an  =  American. 


342 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


A.B.,  or  B. A. = Bachelor  of  Arts. 
Acct.,  or  acct.,  or  ^c= Account. 
A.D.=In  the  year  of  our  Lord. 
Adj.,  or  adj. = Adjective. 
Adv.,  adv.,  Ad.,  or  ad.  =  Advent. 
Adv.,  or  adv. = Advertisement. 
Ala. = Alabama. 

A.M.,  or  M.A.=Master  of  Arts. 
A.M. = Before  noon. 
Anon. = Anonymous . 
Apr. = April. 
Ark. = Arkansas . 
Ar.  Ter.= Arizona  Territory. 
A.-S. = Anglo-Saxon. 
Aug. = August. 
Ave.= Avenue. 
BaL= Balance. 
Bbl.,  or  bbl.= Barrel. 
Bro.= Brother. 

Bu.,  bu,,  Bush.,  or  bush. = Bushel. 
B.C. = Before  Christ. 
B.S.= Bachelor  of  Science. 
C.=Hundred. 
Can.=Canada. 
CaL=California. 
Capt.= Captain. 
C.  E.=Civil  engineer. 
O.  H.= Court  House. 
Chap. = Chapter. 
Ohas.= Charles. 
Co. = Company,  county. 
C.  O.  D.=Collect  on  delivery. 
Ool.=Colonel,  Colorado. 
Coll.=College. 
Conn.,  or  Ct.= Connecticut 
Oor.  See,  =  Corresponding  Secre- 
tary. 


Or. = Credit,  creditor. 

Ct.,  or  ct.=Cent(s). 

Cwt.,  or  cwt.=Hundred-weight. 

d.= penny,  pence. 

D.  C.= District  of  Columbia. 
D.D.= Doctor  of  Divinity. 
Dec. = Dec  ember. 

Del. = Delaware. 

Diet. = Diction  ary . 

Do.,  or  do.r=  Ditto  (the  same). 

Dr.=Doctor,  debtor. 

Doz.,  or  doz.=: Dozen,  dozens. 

D.V.=God  willing. 

E.=East. 

Ed. = Editor,  edition. 

E.  E.= Errors  excepted. 
e.  g.=:For  example. 
Eng.= England. 

Esq. = Esquire. 

et  aL=And  others. 

Etc. = And  so  forth,  and  others. 

Ex.  =  Exercise,  example,  Ex- 
odus. 

P.,  or  Fahr.— Fahrenheit. 

Feb. = February. 

Fla.= Florida. 

Fr.=r  French. 

Fri.= Friday. 

Ft.,  or  ft. = Foot,  feet. 

F.R.S.= Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety. 

Fur.,  or  fur. = Furlong (s). 

Ga.=Georgia. 

Gal.,  or  gal. = Gallon. 

Gen. = General. 

Geo.= George. 

Ger.= German. 

Gov.=Gk>yernor.  £ 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


343 


Gr.=:  Greek. 

H.B.M.  =  His    or    Her  Britannic 

Majesty. 

Hdkf.,  or  hdkf.= Handkerchief. 
Hhd.,  or  hhd.=Hogshead(s). 
Hon. = Honorable. 
Id.,  or  id.^The  same  (idem). 
Id.=Idaho. 
i.e. = That  is  (id  est). 
HI.  —Illinois. 
in.r=Inch(es). 
incog. = Unknown. 
Ind.= Indiana. 
Ind.  Ter.= Indian  Territory. 
la.,  or  Io.=Io\va. 
Inf.,  or  inf. = Infinitive. 
Imp.,  or  imp. = Imperfect. 
Inst.= Instant. 
Int.,  or  int. = Interest. 
It.=Italian. 
Jan. = January. 
Jr.,  or  Jun.— Junior. 
Kan. = Kansas. 
Ky.=:  Kentucky. 
L.=Latin. 
1.;  11.= Line  ;  lines. 
La. •=. Louisiana. 
Lat.,  or  lat.=Latitude. 
lb.=Pound(s). 
It.  I. = Long  Island. 
Lieut. = Lieutenant. 
LIi.B.=Bachelor  of  Laws. 
IiL.D.= Doctor  of  Laws. 
Lon.,  or  Ion.  =  Longitude. 
M.=Noon  ;  thousand. 
M.,  or  Mons.=Sir  (Monsieur). 
Maj.— Major. 
Mar. = March. 
Mass . — Massachusetts. 
M.  C.= Member  of  Congress. 
M.D.=r  Doctor  of  Medicine. 
Md.= Mary  land. 
Mdse.=Merchandise. 


Me.^Maine. 

Messrs.  =  Sirs  ;  gentlemen  (M«»- 
sieurs). 

Mich. = Michigan. 

Minn. = Minnesota. 

Miss . = Mississippi . 

Mile. = Mademoiselle. 

Mme . = Madame . 

Mo.=Missouri  ;  month. 

Mon.= Montana. 

mos.= Months. 

M.P.— Member  of  Parliament. 

Mr. = Master  ;  Mister. 

Mrs. = Mistress. 

MS.  5  MSS.=rManuscript ;  manu- 
scripts. 

Mt.  j  mts. = Mountain  ;  mountains. 

N.=North. 

N.  A. = North  America. 

N.B.=Take  notice. 

N.  C.= North  Carolina. 

N.  Dak. = North  Dakota. 

N.  E.=New  England. 

Neb.=Nebraska. 

Nev.= Nevada. 

N.  H.=New  Hampshire. 

N.  J.^New  Jersey. 

N.  M.= New  Mexico. 

No. = Number. 

Nov. — November. 

N.  Y.^New  York. 

O.=Ohio. 

Oct. = October. 

Or. = Oregon. 

oz.:=0unce(s). 

p.;  pp. = Page  ;  pages. 

Pa.,  or  Penn.= Pennsylvania. 

Per  cent.  =  By  the  hundred. 

Ph.D.= Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

Ph.B.= Bachelor  of  Philosophy. 

Phil. = Philadelphia. 

Pk.,  or  pk.=Peck(s). 

Pl.=Plural. 


344 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


F.M.= Postmaster  ;  afternoon. 

P.  O.^Post  Office. 

Fres.= Present  ;  President. 

Prof. = Professor. 

Pro  tern. = For  the  time. 

Prox.,  or  prox.=Next  month. 

P.  8.= Postscript. 

pt.=Pint(s). 

pwt. = Penny  weight  (s) . 

Q.  E.  D.,  or  q.  e.  d.  =  Which  < 

to  be  proved. 
Qt.=Quart(s). 
q.  v.— Which  see. 
Reed. = Received. 
Rev. = Reverend  ;  Revelations. 
R.  I. = Rhode  Island. 
R.  R.=Railroad. 
Robt.= Robert. 
Rt.  Rev.=Right  Reverend. 
S.;  s.=South  ;  shillings). 
S.  A. = South  America. 
Sat.=Saturday. 
S.  C.= South  Carolina. 
S.  Dak. = South  Dakota. 
Sec.=:  Secretary. 
Sept. = September. 
Sing.  — Singular. 
Sq.= Square. 
Sr.,  or  Sen. = Senior. 


St. = Street,  saint. 

Sun. = Sunday. 

Supt. = Superintendent 

T.=Ton,  tons. 

Tenn.= Tennessee. 

Tex. = Texas. 

Thos.= Thomas. 

Thurs. = Thursday. 

Tues.= Tuesday. 

Ult.=Last  month. 

U.  S.= United  States. 

U.  S.  A.  =  United  States  Army; 

United  States  of  America. 
U.  S.  N.= United  States  Navy. 
U.  Ter.=Utah  Territory. 
VSL.= Virginia, 
viz.— Namely. 
Vol. = Volume, 
vs. = Against. 
Vt.=:  Vermont. 
W.=West 

Wash. = Washington . 
Wed. = Wednesday. 
W.  I. = West  Indies. 
Wis.= Wisconsin. 
Wy.  Ter.= Wyoming  Territory. 
W.  Va.=West  Virginia. 
wt.= Weight. 
yd.=Yard,  yards. 


NEW    BOOK. 


ANATOMY    PHYSIOLOGY 


AND 


HYGIENE 

With    special    reference   to   the    effects    of 
« 

stimulants    and    narcotics. 

FOR  USE  IN  PRIMARY  AND  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS. 


CHARLES   H.  MAY,  M.D., 

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Medical  Department,  Columbia  College,  N.  Y.;   Assistant  Surgeon  N.  Y.  Ophthalmic 

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